(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species herring, blueback
Species Id M010045
Date 27 AUG 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - herring, blueback
OTHER COMMON NAMES - glut herring, blueback, gaspereau, blackbelly, greenback herring, summer herring, herring and river herring
ELEMENT CODE - 05/30/84
AOU CODE - 04/23/85
CATEGORY - Fish
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - Chordata, Vertebrata
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - Osteichthyes, Actinopterygii
ORDER AND SUBORDER - Clupeiformes, Clupeoidei
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - Clupeidae, Alosinae
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - Alosa,
SPECIES AND SSP - aestivalis,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - Alosa aestivalis
AUTHORITY - Mitchill, 1815
TAXONOMY REFERENCES - 1132 and 816
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Type specimens appear to be lost; early taxonomic
identification is confused *3127* Other common names include glut herring,
blueback, summer herring, blackbelly, greenback herring, herring, river
herring, gaspereau *02, 65*
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species herring, blueback
Species Id M010045
Date 27 AUG 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Commercial
See Comments
Sport Fish
Biological Indicator
Commercial/industrial
REFERENCES FOR STATUS - 1382, 1383, 842 and 1359
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
Commercial species in many places; young sold as 'sprats' or
'whitebait' *1382,1383,842,1359*
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Distribution
Species herring, blueback
Species Id M010045
Date 27 AUG 96
DISTRIBUTION
References on County Occurrence - 001, 033, 036, 041, 053, 057, 059, 067, 073, 083, 085, 087, 095, 097, 099, 101, 109, 117, 119, 127, 149, 153, 175, 181, 193, 550, 700 and 800
References on County Abundance - 001, 033, 036, 041, 053, 057, 059, 067, 073, 083, 085, 087, 095, 097, 099, 101, 109, 117, 119, 127, 149, 153, 175, 181, 193, 550, 700 and 800
REFERENCES FOR HYDROLOGIC UNIT CODES - 001, 033, 036, 041, 053, 057, 059, 067, 073, 083, 085, 087, 095, 097, 099, 101, 109, 117, 119, 127, 149, 153, 175, 181, 193, 550, 700 and 800
REFERENCES FOR OTHER DISTRIBUTION - C
Distribution - 1 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - Aquatic
REFERENCES FOR HABITAT - 1362, 1131 and 1359
LAND USE -
Water
Streams and Canals
Bays and Estuaries
REFERENCES FOR LAND USE - 1362, 1131 and 1359
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Marine, intertidal OW0 V 2
Estuarine, intertidal OW0 R 3
Riverine, lower perennial OW0 V 9
REFERENCES FOR NWI - 1362, 1359, 788 and 246
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Anadromous; never spawns far above tidewater
*1362,1131,1359*
For spawning, blueback herring prefer shallow areas covered with
vegetation, old ricefields, and river swamps and small tributaries above
tidal influence.*246*
HABITAT SUITABILITY MODELS -
V1: riverine, estuarine: Dominant substrate type for river herring spawning:
1 = > or equal to 75% mud or silt or other soft material containing detritus
and vegetation, 2 = > or equal to 50% mud or silt, some sand and vegetation,
and 3 = > or equal to 75% sand or other hard material with no vegetation:
optimum = 1; V2: riverine, estuarine: Mean daily water temperature during
spawning season: minimum = 12 deg. C, maximum = 28 deg. C, optimum = 20-24
deg. C; V3: riverine, estuarine: Mean number of zooplankton per liter: minimum
= 0/liter, maximum = 125/liter, optimum = 100/liter or greater; V4: riverine,
estuarine: Mean salinity during spring or summer: minimum = 0 ppt, maximum
= 14 ppt, optimum = 5 ppt or less; V5: riverine, estuarine: Mean surface water
temperature: minimum = 0 deg. C, maximum = 40 deg. C, optimum = 20-30 deg. C
COMMENTS ON HABITAT SUITABILITY MODELS -
Assumptions of the models: V1 - The type of substrate over which river herring
spawn most frequently is optimal; V2 - Quantitative information on optimal
spawning temperature for river herring is lacking; mean daily water temperature
during the spawning season of 20-24 deg. C; V3 - One hundred or more zoo-
plankton per liter is an optimal food resource for river herring; V4 - Low
salinity waters are optimal for juvenile river herring prior to fall migra-
tions; V5 - Optimal temperatures for juvenile river herring are those that
result in optimum growth;
POTENTIAL NATURAL VEGETATION -
065 Northern Cordgrass Prairie (Distichlis-Spartina)
101 Oak - Hickory - Pine Forest (Quercus-Carya-Pinus)
103 Southern Floodplain Forest (Quercus-Nyssa-Taxodium)
Habitat Associations - 1 REFERENCES FOR PNV - 4205
ECOREGION -
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Plains with High Hills
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Flat Plains
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Irregular Plains
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Irregular Plains, slight rel
REFERENCES FOR ECOREGION - 4205
Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species herring, blueback
Species Id M010045
Date 27 AUG 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
Omnivore
REFERENCES FOR TROPHIC LEVEL - 1383, 842 and 136
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Molluscs Larva stage
General Cirripeds Larva stage
General Insects Egg/Fetus stage
General Cirripeds Larva stage
General See Comments; Food See Comments
General Euglenophyta Not Specified
General Chrysophyta Not Specified
General Pyrrophyta Not Specified
General Protozoans Not Specified
General Copepods Not Specified
General Crustaceans Not Specified
General Branchiopods Not Specified
Important See Comments; Food See Comments
Adult Molluscs Larva stage
Adult Cirripeds Larva stage
Adult Insects Larva stage
Adult Cirripeds Larva stage
Larva Crustaceans Not Specified
Larva Branchiopods Not Specified
Larva Copepods Not Specified
Juvenile Crustaceans Egg/Fetus stage
Juvenile Crustaceans Adult stage
Juvenile Crustaceans Not Specified
Juvenile Branchiopods Not Specified
Juvenile Copepods Egg/Fetus stage
Juvenile Copepods Larva stage
Juvenile Copepods Adult stage
Juvenile Copepods Not Specified
Juvenile Insects Egg/Fetus stage
Juvenile Insects Adult stage
Juvenile Diptera Larva stage
Juvenile Osteichthyes Larva stage
Adult Crustaceans Not Specified
Adult Copepods Not Specified
Adult Insects Egg/Fetus stage
Adult Insects Adult stage
Adult Osteichthyes Egg/Fetus stage
Adult Osteichthyes Not Specified
General Zooplankton Not Specified
General Copepods Not Specified
Larva Zooplankton Not Specified
Larva Copepods Not Specified
Larva Branchiopods Not Specified
Juvenile Osteichthyes Not Specified
Juvenile Crustaceans Not Specified
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species herring, blueback
Species Id M010045
Date 27 AUG 96
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
Juvenile Insects Egg/Fetus stage
Juvenile Insects Adult stage
Juvenile Osteichthyes Juvenile stage
Adult Osteichthyes Not Specified
Adult Crustaceans Not Specified
Adult Insects Egg/Fetus stage
Adult Insects Adult stage
Adult Osteichthyes Juvenile stage
Larva See Comments; Food See Comments
Juvenile See Comments; Food See Comments
Adult See Comments; Food See Comments
REFERENCES FOR GENERAL FOOD - 788, 816 and 136
REFERENCES FOR IMPORTANT FOOD - 816
REFERENCES FOR ADULT FOOD - 788, 816 and 136
REFERENCES FOR JUVENILE FOOD - 136
REFERENCES FOR LARVAE FOOD - 136
COMMENTS ON FOOD -
General and important: 9999S= feeds on zooplankton, shrimp and small fish,
and phytoplankton *816*
Blueback herring feed chiefly on zooplankton, particularly copepods *136*.
COMMENTS ON ADULT FOOD -
Primarily feeds on zooplankton, though fish eggs, other eggs, insects and
small fishes may be important foods in some areas or for larger individuals;
Few studies of adult anadromous herring food habits. Generally,
they are zooplanktopods with size range and diversity of prey increasing
with herring size. Landlocked population may become quite piscivorous *65,
10*
Adults consume fish, crustacean and insect eggs, as well as adult insects;
young fish may also constitute a portion of the diet when available *136*.
COMMENTS ON JUVENILE FOOD -
Young-of-the-year in the James River consumed Bosimina spp., copepod nauplii,
copepodites, and adult copepods; crustaceans consumed in the Cape Fear River
in North Carolina; 6600s: Prey includes copepods, amphipods,
isopopods, cladocerans, cumaceans, mysids and decapods *09*, chironomid
midges *10, 65*
Adults consume fish, crustacean and insect eggs, as well as adult insects;
young fish may also constitute a portion of the diet when available *136*.
COMMENTS ON LARVAE FOOD -
0400S: unspecified zooplankton, but includes cladocerans and copepod *65,
Food Habits - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species herring, blueback
Species Id M010045
Date 27 AUG 96
10*
Larvae consume primarily zooplankton and relatively small cladocereans and
copepods *136*.
Food Habits - 3 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species herring, blueback
Species Id M010045
Date 27 AUG 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G See comments on environmental associations
BA Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
BA Substrate: Specified in Comments
RA Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
RA Water Depth Preference: Specified in Comments
E Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
RJ Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
G Water Temperature: Between 21-27 degrees C
LIM Dissolved Oxygen: Low [less than 5 mg/l] oxygen concentrations
LIM Water pH: Between 6.5-8.5
LIM Water Temperature: Greater than 27 degrees C
LIM Water Temperature: Below 15 degrees C
LIM Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
LIM Dissolved Oxygen: Low [less than 5 mg/l] oxygen concentrations
LIM Water pH: Between 6.5-8.5
LIM Nutrient [Phosphorus and Nitrogen]: Specified in comments
LIM Substrate: Specified in Comments
LIM Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
LIM Dissolved Oxygen: Low [less than 5 mg/l] oxygen concentrations
LIM Water pH: Between 6.5-8.5
LIM Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
LIM Water Temperature: Greater than 27 degrees C
LIM Water Temperature: Between 21-27 degrees C
LIM Water Temperature: Between 15-21 degrees C
LIM Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
LIM Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Specified in Comments
LIM Water Velocity [Instream Flow Group Increments]: Unknown
BA Aquatic Features: Specified in Comments
BA
BA Water Velocity [Instream Flow Group Increments]: Specified in Comments
BA Substrate: Specified in Comments
BA Water Temperature: Between 15-21 degrees C
BA Water Temperature: Between 21-27 degrees C
BA Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
L Water Temperature: Between 15-21 degrees C
L Water Temperature: Between 21-27 degrees C
L Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
REFERENCES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 788 and 816
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species herring, blueback
Species Id M010045
Date 27 AUG 96
REFERENCES FOR BREEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 136
REFERENCES FOR LARVAE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 136
COMMENTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS -
99999S=anadromous *816,788*
General comments on Adults: 00020s: Fish temporarily lost ability to
osmoregulate when exposed to "cold" water, regardless of salinity *10*.
Temperatures below 3 deg C caused 100 % mortality *10*. Tolerance
temperature for spawning adults is 16 deg C - 24 deg C *04*. 00170s:
Breeding adults require strong currents (and hard substrata) *09, 10*
00110s: Hard substrate (sand, gravel and > 75% silt) required for spawning
*09, 10*
COMMENTS ON RESTING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
00020s= prefer water temps. between 2-17 deg. C; 00290s= water depths of less
than 100 m; 00220s= extremely tolerant of a wide salinity range (0-28 ppt);
COMMENTS ON BREEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
00020s= prefer water temps. between 17-26 deg. C; 00290s= hard substrate in
swift-flowing waters; 00020a, 00020b, 00020c are limiting factors
specifically for breeding adults.
General comments Limiting Environmental Requirements--Juvenile:
00020S: Tolerance limits reported as below 11.5 deg C and above 32 deg C
*10* and below 3 deg C *09*
00020s: salinity tolerance limit (upper limit) reported as 28 ppt *09*
99999S: LC00 Total residual chlorine is .13td .20mg/l *09*
LC50 Ozone is .08 mg/l *09*
Blueback herring usually do not ascend streams as far as alewives. Blueback
spawn in both fresh and brackish water in rivers and ponds. Blueback
herring prefer spawning in fast-flowing waters with hard substrates.
Blueback spawning at water temperatures of 19-24 oC *136*.
COMMENTS ON RESTING JUVENILE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
00020s= in winter found at temps. between 4.5-6.5 deg. C; 00220s= extremely
tolerant of a wide salinity range (0-28 ppt);
COMMENTS ON FEEDING JUVENILE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
General Comments on Limiting Environmental Requirements--Larva:
00020s: Tolerance range of temperature was reported as 16 - 24 deg C *04*
00030: DO tolerances not specified for feeding vs. resting life form *08*
00220: .36 mg/l total residual chlorine led to 100% mortality. The
calculated LC50 varied by larval age, but ranged from .24 to .28 mg/l total
residual chlorine.
COMMENTS ON LARVAE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
Optimum temperature range for river herring larvae is 16-24 oC *136*.
Environment Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species herring, blueback
Species Id M010045
Date 27 AUG 96
COMMENTS ON EGG ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
00020s= will hatch in 80-90 hours at 20-21 deg.C, 36-38 hours at 22 deg. C,
55-58 hours at 22.2-23.7 deg. C; 00220s= extremely tolerant of a wide range of
salinity levels;
00020s: Temperature tolerance limits are 12.7 deg C to 26.7 deg C *02*
00070s: Limiting in that can induce anoxic conditions *02*
00090s: sand and gravel with 75% silt *02*, hard substrate *65*
00070s: Ammonia nitrites and reduced nitrogen are toxic *02*
00220s: D-5ppt *02*
99999s: LC50 of chlorine is .20 to .32mg/l., Significant abnormality
induced by Total residual chlorine of .30 mg/l. TRC of .84 mg/l
prevented full embryo development *09, 10*
Environment Associations - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species herring, blueback
Species Id M010045
Date 27 AUG 96
LIFE HISTORY
ORIGIN: native *1115*; range from Nova Scotia to the St. Johns River, Florida;
have established populations in the St. Johns and St. Marys Rivers with minor
populations in the Nassau and Tomaka Rivers, Florida; BEHAVIOR: individuals
sexually mature at 4 years; live 8 years; migration when water is about
20 degrees C *816,788*; dispersion= non-random *1131*; enter fresh and brack-
ish water once a year to spawn with some evidence they return to natal rivers
to spawn; some juveniles appear to move upstream in summer before migrating
downstream and late fall; in most Atlantic coast populations, juveniles emi-
grate from freshwater-estuarine nursery areas between June and November of
their first year of life.
REPRODUCTION: spawning periods range from March through July occurring later
as one proceeds north; yolk-sac larvae are approximately 2.5-5.0mm total
length at hatching and average 5.1 mm at yolk-sac absorption; yolk-sac absorp-
tion takes 2-3 days; transformation to the juvenile stage is gradual, but
generally complete at approx. 20 mm in total length; adults are usually fully
scaled at 45 mm total length; typically spawn in swift-flowing, deeper
stretches of rivers and streams with associated hard substrate; in
with soft substrates; spawning runs begin in spring in minimum water tempera-
tures of 14 degrees C and cease when temperatures exceed 27 degrees C;
fecundity estimates for the Connecticut River ranged from 45,200-349,700 eggs
per female individual; spawning runs consisted of 80% repeat spawners
in the Altamaha River, Georgia, 32-52% in North Carolina, 65% in Virginia,
82% in Connecticut, and 75% in Nova Scotia;
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: age 1 individuals reach total lengths of 66-119 mm
total length; age 2 bluebacks reached 148 mm in Albemarle Sound, North
Carolina while total lengths of 180 mm were recorded at Georges Bank; females
are slightly larger and heavier than males of the same age; in Atlantic coast
populations, juveniles have a mean length of 36-71 mm; This
anadromous herring is blue to bluegreen dorsally, silver laterally with
prominent shoulder spots. Its fins are pale yellow or green. Adults often
have dusky lines along the back. Adults are morphologically similar to the
Alewife (Aloca pseudoharengus) but can be separated by the scale imbrication
pattern and by individual scale markings. Alewife usually have fewer
vertebrae, dorsal rays and first arch gill rakers *65, 10* Mature males are
smaller than females of same age *10*
BEHAVIOR: Juveniles migrate downstream in early fall and little is known of
their movements after reaching the sea *09* Little is known of adult
coastal movements, but it is inferred that are distributed along the
Atlantic Bight in Spring, move north to the gulf of Maine and Georges BAnks
in the summer, and then move back to the mid-Atlantic in the winter *09, 10,
65*. Schooling begins in the late larval stage and continues throughout
life *09*. It is highly selective in terms of food choices (size and kinds)
preferring primarily copepods and cladocerans *09*
LIMITING FACTORS: the greatest limits to populations of blueback herring
appear to be food availability, predation, and fishing mortality; environ-
mental pollutants and habitat alterations such as dams and stream channeli-
zation are also considered detrimental; mortality estimates have been reported
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species herring, blueback
Species Id M010045
Date 27 AUG 96
to be as high as 70%. Breeding cover, water temperature and salinity
are limiting to spawning adults, eggs and larva *04*. Juveniles may
be limited by food,salinity and summer/fall temperatures *04* Maybe limited
by anoxic conditions due to nutrient loading in the Chesapeake bay *02*
POPULATION ATTRIBUTES: Sex ratios of spawners was near 1:1, however, males
make up greater % of younger age classes while females dominate older age
classes *10, 65* Males are recruited to the spawning population by 3-4,
females by 4-5 *04* Fresh water mortality from egg to emmigration is approx
99.99 % *10, 65* Adult annual mortality averaged 61% in North Carolina
(range of 48 - 84%) *09* Schnaber and Jolly Seber estimates of spawning
adults on the lower susquehanna suggest a population decline *09*
SPECIES INTERACTION: This species links estuarine, riverine food beds, as
well as linking zooplankton and top piscivores *65* Suggested competitors
include the American Shad and Bay Anchovy as competitors of the Juvenile *09*
and alewives as competitors for food with adult *10*. Eggs of this and
other species of herring are eaten by adult bluebacks *09*. Predators
include Bluefish, weakfish, striped bass as well as gulls and terns
SPAWNING: Blueback herring usually do not ascend streams as far as
alewives. Blueback spawn in both fresh and brackish water in rivers and
ponds. Blueback herring prefer spawning in fast-flowing waters with hard
substrates. Blueback spawning occurs from late April to early May in the
Potomac River. Blueback spawning at water temperatures of 19-24 oC.
Optimum temperature range for river herring larvae is 16-24 oC *136*.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS: The LC50 of total residual chlorine (TRC) for
blueback herring eggs ranges from 0.20-0.32 ppm. Eggs exposed to 84 mg/l of
TRC reached early embryo stages but failed to develop further. Larvae from
eggs exposed to sublethal concentrations of total residual chlorine were all
deformed. Concentrations of 36 mg/l TRC produced 100% mortality in 1-day
old larvae. Ammonia, nitrites and any form of reduced nitrogen are toxic.
Nitrogen and phosphorus can indirectly affect food production and induce
anoxic conditions. Suspended sediments at concentrations of 100 ppm or less
had no significant effect on the hatch rate of blueback herring eggs. Water
flow created by shear, power plant uptake, pressure drop, and dam turbines
is critical to the reproduction and survival of river herrings *136*.
LIFE HISTORY CODES -
Hybrid
Reintroduced Native
Breeding Spawning Season: April
Breeding/Spawning Season: May
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species herring, blueback
Species Id M010045
Date 27 AUG 96
COMMENTS ON LIFE HISTORY -
Anadromous; run into streams in the spring a bit later
than the alewife, but never far above tidewater *1381,2552,1131,842*;
spawns brackish or freshwater; eggs demersal, somewhat adhesive
*788,1362,1131*; leave brackish nursery water for ocean in the fall
*1362,1131*; inhabit narrow band of coastal water; move offshore to
bottom water in winter *1383,1362,1131,842*
REFERENCES FOR LIFE HISTORY- 788, 1115, 1131, 816, 10, 9 and 136
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species herring, blueback
Species Id M010045
Date 27 AUG 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Adverse Applying fertilizers
Adverse Applying pesticides
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Developing fishways
Beneficial Developing/maintaining brackish marsh
Beneficial Regulating harvest of species being described
Adverse Salinity alteration
Adverse Water harvesting
Adverse Water supply, flow augmentation
Adverse Water supply, flow withdrawl
Adverse Construction of navigational improvements [dams, locks, etc.]
REFERENCES FOR ADVERSE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 136
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Because spawning by blueback herring is more site-specific than alewife,
dams and alteration of blueback spawning sites may be more detrimental to
their populations. Water flow created by shear, power plant uptake, pressure
drop, and dam turbines is critical to the reproduction and survival of river
herrings *136*.
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species herring, blueback
Species Id M010045
Date 27 AUG 96
References
136 * Chesapeake Bay Program. 1988. Habitat Requirements for
Chesapeake Bay Living Resources. Chesapeake Executive
Council pp 86.
788* Carlander, K.D. 1969. Handbook of freshwater fishery
biology. Life history data on freshwater fishes of the United
States and Canada, exclusive of the Perciformes. I. Iowa State
Univ. Ames.
816* Lee, D.S., Gilbert, C.R., Hocutt, C.H., McAllister, R.E.,
Stauffer, J.R., Jr. (ed.)1980. Atlas of North American
freshwater fishes. Pub. 1980-12 of N. Car. Biol. Surv, N. C.
State Mus. of Nat. Hist. Raleigh.
842* Scott, W.B., Crossman, E.J. 1973. Freshwater fishes of
Canada. Can. Fish. Res. Board Bull. 184.
1115* Fowler, H.W. 1919. A list of the fishes of Pennsylvania.
Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 32:49-74.
1131* Mansuet, A.J., Hardy, J.D., Jr. 1967. Development of
fishes of the Chesapeake Bay region. Part 1.. Nat. Res. Inst.
Univ. Md. Baltimore.
1132* Mitchill, S.L. 1815. Fishes of New York. Trans. Lit. Phil.
Soc. N.Y. 1:355-492.
1359* Bigelow, H.B., Schroeder, W.C. 1953. Fishes of the Gulf of
Maine. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. Fish Bull. 53:1-577.
1362* Hildebrand, S.F., Schroeder, W.C. 1928. Fishes of
Chesapeake Bay. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 43 (1927) Pt. 1.
1382* Goode, G.B. 1886. American fishes. Smithsonian Instit.
Washington, D.C.
1383* Hildebrand, S.F. 1963. Fishes of the western North
Atlantic. 1(3). Sear Found. Mar. Res., Mem.
4205* Jenkins, R.E. 1984. Fishes of Virginia (tentative).
References - 1