(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species kingfish, northern
Species Id M010420
Date 27 AUG 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - kingfish, northern
OTHER COMMON NAMES - kingfish, roundhead, sea mullet, sea mink, whiting, king whiting, northern whiting and barb
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Fish
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - Vertebrata,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - Osteichthyes,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - Perciformes, Percoidei
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - Sciaenidae,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - Menticirrhus,
SPECIES AND SSP - saxatilis,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - Menticirrhus saxatilis
AUTHORITY - Bloch and Schneider
TAXONOMY REFERENCES - 187 and 190
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
SYNONYMY: Johnius saxatilis, Bloch and Schneider 1801
Menticirrhus saxatilis, Jordan 1883
Umbrina nebulosa, Gunther 1860
Menticirrhus nebulosus, Jordan and Gilbert 1883
Menticirrhus saxatilis, Jordan and Eigenmann 1889
TAXONOMIC STATUS: The northern kingfish is a morphologically distinct
species within the polytypic genus Menticirrhus.
SUBSPECIES: There are no recorded subspecies in the literature.
COMMON NAMES: kingfish, roundhead, sea mullet, sea mink, whiting, king
whiting, northern whiting, barb *187*.
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species kingfish, northern
Species Id M010420
Date 27 AUG 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Sport Fish
Commercial
REFERENCES FOR STATUS - 187
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
In the New York Bight area, and probably throughout its range, the northern
kingfish is more important as a recreational than as a commercial species.
Maximum commercial landings in New Jersey were approximately 70 metric tons
in 1939, and in New York approximately 35 metric tons in 1940. The
commercial fishery for northern kingfish, confined to the United States, is
incidental, as it is for the entire "kingfish" group. No catches have been
reported by foreign fleets.
Although the abundance centers differ for the three Atlantic species of the
genus Menticirrhus, the southern end of the known range for northern
kingfish overlaps the northern end of the known range of the southern
kingfish. Without differentiation of the species in catch data, accurate
values of the fishing effort and intensity for the northern kingfish
throughout its known entire range connot be presently determined. In the
"kingfishes" 31,000 were estimated to have been caught by recreational
anglers in the mid-Atlantic region during 1979 *187*.
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Distribution
Species kingfish, northern
Species Id M010420
Date 27 AUG 96
DISTRIBUTION
Distribution - 1 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Marine BB. V 1
Estuarine FL2 V 1
Estuarine FL2 V 6
Estuarine FL2 V 1
Estuarine FL2 V 6
Estuarine FL2 V 1
REFERENCES FOR NWI - 187
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Northern kingfish inhabit the coastal waters from the Chesapeake Bay to New
York during the summer months of the year. They first appear in late April
or early May and remain until late autumn (usually through October) , at
which time they migrate to wintering grounds. The wintering grounds of the
species are unknown, but presumed to be offshore and to the south in deeper
water.
During the summer residence period, the fish are confined to the immediate
vicinity of the coast, where they occur on sandy bottoms just outside the
surf, and in sandy channels in the vicinity of inlets. They occupy
enclosed as well as open waters, even entering river mouths. In
distribution studies, smaller fish were found in waters of lower salinity.
Larger fish were associated with the higher salinity in the offing of the
Delaware Bay.
Northern kingfish coastal habitat has been described as that section of the
shelf extending from the estuaries to depths of 10 fathoms. Spawning
usually occurs in bays and sounds, although it has also reportedly occurred
outside of estuaries. Spawning occurs on the bottom.
Northern kingfish morphology indicates bottom feeding behavior. Juveniles
reportedly feed in the lower water column *187*.
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species kingfish, northern
Species Id M010420
Date 27 AUG 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE
REFERENCES FOR TROPHIC LEVEL - 187
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
Adult Molluscs Not Specified
Adult Crustaceans Not Specified
Adult Malacostraca Not Specified
Adult Invertebrate Cordates Not Specified
Adult Osteichthyes Juvenile stage
Juvenile Annelids Not Specified
Juvenile Invertebrate Cordates Not Specified
Juvenile Polychaetes Not Specified
Juvenile Bryozoans Not Specified
Juvenile Crustaceans Not Specified
Juvenile Malacostraca Not Specified
Juvenile Isoptera Not Specified
Juvenile Copepods Not Specified
Juvenile Diptera Not Specified
Juvenile Insects Not Specified
Juvenile Xiphosura Not Specified
Juvenile Invertebrate Cordates Not Specified
Juvenile Osteichthyes Not Specified
Juvenile Clupeiformes Not Specified
Juvenile Gobiesociformes Not Specified
Juvenile Detritus Not Specified
Juvenile Detritus - Organic Not Specified
Important Crustaceans Not Specified
REFERENCES FOR IMPORTANT FOOD - 187
REFERENCES FOR ADULT FOOD - 187
REFERENCES FOR JUVENILE FOOD - 187
REFERENCES FOR LARVAE FOOD - 187
COMMENTS ON FOOD -
The diet of northern kingfish has been described as consisting of various
shrimps (perhaps their chief diet), crabs, other crustaceans, small
mollusks, worms, and young fish. This simplified description is applicable
to adult fish. Quantitative volumetric comparison of stomach contents
between juveniles and adults indicates differences in food preferences.
These differences may be a function of size and improved predatory ability,
loss of a functional swim bladder in adults, or simply a reflection of
available prey *187*.
COMMENTS ON ADULT FOOD -
The diet of northern kingfish has been described as consisting of various
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species kingfish, northern
Species Id M010420
Date 27 AUG 96
shrimps (perhaps their chief diet), crabs, other crustaceans, small
mollusks, worms, and young fish. This simplified description is applicable
to adult fish. Quantitative volumetric comparison of stomach contents
between juveniles and adults indicates differences in food preferences.
These differences may be a function of size and improved predatory ability,
loss of a functional swim bladder in adults, or simply a reflection of
available prey *187*.
COMMENTS ON JUVENILE FOOD -
A report on the stomach contents of juveniles (1-14 cm TL) lists:
INVERTEBRATES
Nematoda
Annelida
Polychaeta
Bryozoa
Platyhelminthes
Cestoda
Arthropoda
Crustacea
Mysidacea
Decapoda
Brachyura (adults and larvae)
Cragonidae
Palemonidae
Isopoda
Amphipoda
Gammarus
Crustacean eggs
Copepoda
Insecta
Diptera
Xiphosura (Limulus)
PROTOCHORDATES
Balanoglossus
VERTEBRATES
Fishes
Gobiidae
Clupeidae
MISCELLANEOUS
gravel, sand
unidentified eggs
detritus
plant detritus
fish scales
This listing, qualitatively, is essentially an expansion of the generalized
adult diet. Quantitative volumetric comparison of stomach contents batween
juveniles and adults indicates differences in food preference. These
differences may be a function of size and improved predatory ability, loss
of a functional swim bladder in adults, or simply a reflection of available
prey *187*.
Food Habits - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species kingfish, northern
Species Id M010420
Date 27 AUG 96
COMMENTS ON LARVAE FOOD -
Northern kingfish larvae absorb their yolk sac during the first 4-5 days
after hatching *187*.
Food Habits - 3 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species kingfish, northern
Species Id M010420
Date 27 AUG 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Sand
G Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Mud or silt
G Relation to Substrate: Unattached - normally free living
G Water Temperature: Between 21-27 degrees C
LIM Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
G
G Aquatic Habitat Zonation: Specified in Comments
G Water Depth Preference: Specified in Comments
LIM Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
G Coastal Wetlands: Sounds and bays
G Estuarine habitat zone: bay
G Estuarine habitat zone: sound
G Estuarine habitat zone: offshore
REFERENCES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 187
REFERENCES FOR LIMITING ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 187
REFERENCES FOR FEEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 187
REFERENCES FOR RESTING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 187
REFERENCES FOR BREEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 187
REFERENCES FOR FEEDING JUVENILE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 187
REFERENCES FOR RESTING JUVENILE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 187
COMMENTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS -
TEMPERATURE: The greatest concentration of fish was taken in waters of
24-26 deg C. Laboratory studies on thermal requirements of five species of
estuarine fish, including northern kingfish, were performed. For the
single experiment conducted on northern kingfish in a gradient tank,
individuals of two different sizes were used. The larger fish died first,
between 35-36 deg C, while the smaller fish died between 36-37 deg C.
Avoidance of the warmer end of the tank by smaller fish occurred at 30-30.5
deg C, while larger fish did not exhibit avoidance behavior until 31.2 deg
C.
SALINITY: Smaller fish generally prefer waters of lower salinity, while
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species kingfish, northern
Species Id M010420
Date 27 AUG 96
larger fish are associated with the higher salinity in the offing of the
bay.
DEPTH: Distribution of northern kingfish by depth indicated a preference
for shallow water in general and a separation by size, with small fish in
shallower water than large fish. Their coastal habitat is that section of
the shelf extending from the estuaries to depths of 10 fathoms.
SUBSTRATE: Northern kingfish prefer bottoms of smooth, sandy mud.
Preference has also been noted for hard or sandy bottoms.
HABITAT ZONE: Northern kingfish inhabit the coastal waters from Chesapeake
Bay to New York during the summer months of the year. During this period,
the fish are confined to immediate vicinity of the coast and sandy channels
in the vicinity of inlets. They occupy closed as well as open waters, even
entering river mouths. The wintering grounds of the species are unknown,
but are presumed to be offshore and to the south in deeper water *187*.
COMMENTS ON RESTING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
TEMPERATURE: The greatest concentration of fish was taken in waters of
24-26 deg C. Laboratory studies on thermal requirements of five species of
estuarine fish, including northern kingfish, were performed. For the
single experiment conducted on northern kingfish in a gradient tank,
individuals of two different sizes were used. The larger fish died first,
between 35-36 deg C, while the smaller fish died between 36-37 deg C.
Avoidance of the warmer end of the tank by smaller fish occurred at 30-30.5
deg C, while larger fish did not exhibit avoidance behavior until 31.2 deg
C.
SALINITY: Smaller fish generally prefer waters of lower salinity, while
larger fish are associated with the higher salinity in the offing of the
bay.
DEPTH: Distribution of northern kingfish by depth indicated a preference
for shallow water in general and a separation by size, with small fish in
shallower water than large fish. Their coastal habitat is that section of
the shelf extending from the estuaries to depths of 10 fathoms.
SUBSTRATE: Northern kingfish prefer bottoms of smooth, sandy mud.
Preference has also been noted for hard or sandy bottoms.
HABITAT ZONE: Northern kingfish inhabit the coastal waters from Chesapeake
Bay to New York during the summer months of the year. During this period,
the fish are confined to immediate vicinity of the coast and sandy channels
in the vicinity of inlets. They occupy closed as well as open waters, even
entering river mouths. The wintering grounds of the species are unknown,
but are presumed to be offshore and to the south in deeper water.
TURBULENCE: Adults primarily inhabit the turbulent ocean surf *187*.
COMMENTS ON FEEDING ADULT ENVIRONTAL ASSOC_ -
SUBSTRATE: The well-flattened profile, inferior mouth, and mandibular
barbel of the northern kingfish all indicate bottom feeding behavior. The
prefernce for sandy bottoms in warm waters is reflected in the sedentary
forms which make up the kingfish's diet *187*.
COMMENTS ON BREEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
HABITAT ZONE: Northern kingfish spawn in bays and sounds. Spawning has
also been reported to occur outside of estuaries.
SUBSTRATE: Spawning occurs on the bottom *187*.
Environment Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species kingfish, northern
Species Id M010420
Date 27 AUG 96
COMMENTS ON RESTING JUVENILE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
TURBULENCE: Juvenile northern kingfish are usually found in the relatively
quiet waters of estuaries *187*.
COMMENTS ON FEEDING JUVENILE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
FEEDING HABITAT: Juvenile northern kingfish feed in the lower water
column. Their food items indicate a feeding preference of the epifauna
*187*.
Environment Associations - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species kingfish, northern
Species Id M010420
Date 27 AUG 96
LIFE HISTORY
MORPHOLOGY: Head 3.05 to 4.10; depth 3.65 to 4.30; D. X-I, 24 to27; A.
I,8 (sometimes 9); scales 91 to 96 (counting vertical series between
enlarged scale at upper angle of opercle and base of caudal). Body
elongate, compressed; back elevated; ventral outline nearly straight;
head low; profile slightly depressed above the eyes; eye small; snout
conical, projecting beyond mouth. Mouth horizontal, inferior; chin with a
single short, thickish barbel; maxillary reaching opposite middle of eye,
1.35 to 2.85 in head; teeth in jaws in bands, outer teeth in upper jaw
somewhat enlarged; preopercle serrate; gill rakers very short, about 6
more or less developed on lower limb of first arch; scales small, firm,
strongly ctenoid, not reduced in size on the breast; dorsal fins
contiguous, the first with slender, flexible spines, the third spine
produced in the adult, reaching far beyond the anterior soft rays when
deflexed; soft dorsal rather long and low; caudal fin with concave upper
lobe and somewhat produced lower lobe, proportionally longer in young than
in adult; anal fin moderate, with a single slender spine; ventral fins
rather short, inserted about half an eye's diameter behind base of
pectorals; pectoral fins reaching to or a little beyond tips of ventrals,
1.0 to 1.45 in head.
Color dusky above, silvery underneath; some specimens much darker than
others; back and sides with distinct dark oblique crossbands running
downward and forward, the anterior one at the nape extending downward,
meeting the second and thus forming a V-shaped blotch on each side; a dark
lateral streak bounding the pale color of the belly, most distinct
posteriorly; and extending on lower lobe of caudal; inside of gill cavity
scarcely dusky; pectorals and spinal dorsal mostly black; other fins plain
to dusky, varying among individuals.
SEXUALITY: Northern kingfish are heterosexual, and there is no record of
sexual dimorphism.
MATURITY: The northern kingfish reaches maturity during the third or fourth
summer life, i.e., at the age of 2 or 3 years. In one study, males
appeared to mature earlier (at age 2) than did females, which reportedly did
not spawn until age three. Another study indicated that many fish of both
sexes as young as 1 year are sexually mature. More than half of all 1- and
2-year-old males examined were classified running ripe, while a larger
percentage of the females from the same age groups were at or approaching
spawning condition.
MATING: Mating, in terms of paired individuals, is not known to occur.
FERTILIZATION: Fertilization is external.
GONADS: No estimations of fecundity are available.
SPAWNING: Northern kingfish spawn annually in bays and sounds. Spawning
has also been reported to occur outside of estuaries. Spawning occurs on
the bottom.
Some early researchers noted the common occurrence of ripe fish during June
at both Woods Hole, Massachusetts and Naragansett Bay, Rhode Island. The
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species kingfish, northern
Species Id M010420
Date 27 AUG 96
spawning period has been reported as June until August, but it has been
noted that it is not likely that any young that might be hatched in the Gulf
of Maine from eggs laid by the occasional visitor would survive its low
temperature. Data collected in Connecticut waters suggested spawning from
June until August. In Long Island, eggs were collected only during June,
but postlarvae were found from June through early July. More recent data
from New York waters indicated an extended spawning interval, with a maximum
reached during June and continuing to a lesser extent some years through
August and into September. In Atlantic City, New Jersey, the spawning
period was placed from June through August with a maximum reached in late
June or early July. A lengthy protraction of the spawning season was
suggested in Delaware Bay. It was suggested that spawning began no later
than April and continued through May and probably later at Beaufort, North
Carolina.
From this, it can be seen that spawning in northern kingfish generally
follows a spring spawning pattern, with advancement from south to north
throughout the range of the species in response to increasing bottom
temperature. Data indicate that older groups in the population spawn first.
EGGS: Fertilized eggs of the northern kingfish are immediately buoyant.
The eggs are spherical, 0.76 to 0.92 mm in diameter, averaging about 0.80 to
0.85 mm. They are almost colorless; some, however, show a faint yellowish
tinge. The yolk contain one or more refractive oil globules, the number
varying greatly in the eggs of different individual fish. Eggs from some
fish contain from 1 to 6 globules, and average 3 to 4, while in others the
number may be from 9 to 18, and average 13 or 14. When only one oil globule
is present, its diameter is from 0.19 to 0.26 mm. When many are present,
they are irregular in size, and range from 0.14 to 0.20 mm in diameter. As
development proceeds, these globules become amalgamated until at the end of
hatching only one is present.
EMBRYOS: In still water, at a temperature of 20.0-21.0 deg C, the
incubation period is 46-50 hr. Approximately 13 hr after fertilization
grayish chromatophores become distributed over the dorso-lateral aspects of
the embryo and on the surface of the oil globule. At 24 hr the
chromatophores on the globule have become black and stellate and the embryo
is dotted with black punctulations. A number of scattered small black
chromatophores also appear on the dorsal surface of the yolk sac.
LARVAE: At the time of hatching, the northern kingfish larvae is from 2.0
to 2.5 mm in length. The head is slightly deflected and the oil globule
lies in the posterior portion of the yolk sac. Pigmentation consists of
three vertical bands of black and dull gold chromatophores, one above the
anus and two posterior to it. These bands divide the caudal region into
three nearly equal sections. A patch of black and dull gold pigment lies in
the dorsal finfold anteriorly, and similar chromatophores are scattered over
the yolk sac. The larva floats in an inverted position with the tail
inclined upward, and sporadically makes short wriggling dashes which bring
it momentarily into what is to be its normal position after the yolk sac is
absorbed.
On the second day after hatching, the posterior caudal band loses its gold
pigment and all the markings are less conspicious. The yolk sac is
considerably reduced, but little growth in length occurs. The pectorals are
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species kingfish, northern
Species Id M010420
Date 27 AUG 96
faintly visible. On the third day, the yolk sac is still further reduced
and the bands of pigmentation, especially the anterior ones, are becoming
faint. On the fourth day, only traces of the caudal bands are visible. A
row of black chromatophores appear along the ventral surface posterior to
the vent, and extends to the location of the middle band. The blotch in the
dorsal finfold is still conspicuous. The eye is pigmented. The pectorals
are pigmented with black and gold chromatophores, and the abdomen has a
gold tinge. The mouth is open and functioning; the yolk sac is almost
completely absorbed. On the fifth day, the normal resting postion is
floating head downward, but the fry are very quick in action when disturbed.
Growth in length up to this time is negligible. On the sixth day, the eye
shows a steel-blue luster. No trace of rudimentary fins is visible. By the
seventh day, a few fry attain the length of 2.8 mm. (No larvae survived to
the eighth day.) Narrative description of the larvae from 2.9 to 10.0 mm in
length is lacking. At a 10 mm size, the body is rather deep, compressed,
with the greatest depth being contained about 2.8 to 2.9 in length to the
base of the caudal fin. The head is quite narrow and compressed; its
length is equal to or slightly longer than the greatest depth of the body.
The interorbital is convex. The eye is longer than the snout. It has a
very small, and slightly vertical pupil. The mouth is moderately oblique,
the upper lip anteriorly being nearly on a level with the lower margin of
the pupil. The maxillary reaches slightly past the middle of the eye, and
the upper jaw projects beyond the lower one. The fins are well developed.
The longest spines in the dorsal reach past the origin of the second dorsal
when deflexed. The caudal fin is asymmetrically rounded, with the rays in
the lower half of the fin the longest. The ventral and pectoral fins are
rather long and coterminal, not quite reaching the vent. The body is dotted
almost everywhere with black chromatophores. An indefinate brownish band is
present on the back below the base of the dorsal fins, and another one
extends along the lateral ventral edge from the origin of the anal to the
base of the lower rays of the caudal. The spinous dorsal fin is nearly all
black, while the second is colorless, except for an indefinate elongate dark
bar on the base of about the middle third of the fin. The caudal fin is
colorless, with a white base, and sometimes with one or a few large black
chromatophores. The anal fin is colorless except for dark dots on its base.
The ventral fins are entirely black, while the pectorals are plain
translucent.
By 20 mm in length, the body has become somewhat more slender than that for
the 10 mm size, and remains rather strongly compressed, with the greastest
depth contained in the length to the base of the caudal about 3.25 to 3.4
times. The head has become broader but remains much deeper than broad.
The mouth is slightly oblique and nearly terminal. The snout scarcely
projects beyond the upper jaw. A slight knob, which is the beginning of
the characteristically adult barbel, is evident at the symphysis of the
lower jaw. Scalation is nearly complete, and the lateral line is developed
anteriorly to about the middle of the base of the second dorsal. The caudal
fin is rather broadly pointed, with the rays in the lower half still the
longest. The general color is an almost uniform dark brown, with a slight
indication of a broad vertical bar, darker than the body color, on the side
under the spinous dorsal, and another one under the middle of the base of
the second dorsal. The spinous dorsal and the ventral fins are black. The
pectoral fins are colorless, as is the dorsal, except for a black blotch on
its base. The second dorsal and anal fins have at least a partly black
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species kingfish, northern
Species Id M010420
Date 27 AUG 96
base; otherwise they are colorless.
At a length of 30-35 mm, the body has continued to become more elongate and
less strongly compressed. The depth remains proportionally a little greater
than in the adult, it being contained in the length to the bases of the
caudal 3.50 to 3.65 times. The mouth is nearly horizontal, inferior, and
the snout projects moderately beyond it. The mandibular barbel is short and
plainly evident. Scalatio is complete. The dorsal spines are not produced,
the longest reaching no further than opposite the base of the first or
second ray of the second dorsal when deflexed. The caudal fin is slightly
angular, and the longest rays, which are in the lower half of the fin, are
notably shorter than the head. The pectoral fins scarcely reach the tips of
the ventrals, and the ventrals do not quite reach the vent. The body is
quite fully pigmented. The ground color is silvery, and the brightest on
the lower parts of the body. Dark brown dots are almost everywhere on the
body. Dark bars are usually evident; the first is on the posterior part of
the head and runs obliquely downward and backward on the opercle, the second
crosses the nape and parallels the first, and the third lies under the
spinous dorsal and bends forward slightly to nearly, or quite, join the
second on the middle of the side. The two together form a V, which is a
recognition mark in the adult. Posterior to the described bars are dark
blotches which suggest bars. The spinous dorsals and the ventrals remain
almost wholly black. The second dorsal and the anal fins are black at the
base or at least are dotted with black. The caudal fin bears two irregular
black spots on its base and is plain translucent elsewhere. The pectoral
fins are more or less dotted with black at the base.
JUVENILES: At a size of 50 to 60 mm, the appearance of the juvenile
resembles the adult sufficiently to be readily recognized. The body has
continued to grow less compressed and somewhat more elongate. The depth is
now contained in the length 3.8 to 4.1 times, which is the dominating
proportion in the adult. The snout is conical, and projects much more
strongly than in the smaller sizes described above. It is somewhat longer
than the eye. Although none of the dorsal spines are notably produced, the
longest one reaches well past the origin of the second dorsal. The third
dorsal spine becomes notably produced when the fish reaches a length of
about 85 mm. The caudal fin has a slightly concave margin and the lower
lobe remains notably longer and somewhat angulate. The caudal fin does not
acquire fully the shape of an adult until the fish attains a length of about
120 mm. The color varies greatly among individuals, some being dark brown
while others silvery gray. All, though, have rather definate oblique dark
bars on the anterior part of the body and a few blotches posteriorly. The
spinous dorsal and the ventrals remain almost wholly black in the darker
individuals, but only partly dusky in the lighter ones. The small,
vertically elongate, eliptical pupil remains conspicuous, as in the smaller
specimens.
Longevity: The maximum age reported for northern kingfish from New
York is 4 years old. The average life expectancy is 2-3 years.
Hardiness: Visual observations made during tagging operations suggest that
the northern kingfish is an extremely difficult species to maintain in
capvity, even for a very brief period. For no apparent reason other than
handling, many fish taken in good condition and placed in the holding tank
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species kingfish, northern
Species Id M010420
Date 27 AUG 96
soon entered a stage of rigor (while yet respirating), as if suffering from
severe shock. Some died in the tank before they could be tagged.
Distress symptoms were also observed in many individuals released to the
water following tagging. It is presumed, therefore, that post-tagging
mortality was very high. Five specimens of northern kingfish could not be
maintained long enough to become acclimated to laboratory conditions. The
northern kingfish was found to be among the first of 15 species of marine
fishes to succumb while held in captivity and subjected to natural winter
water temperatures. Based on a tagging study, several recommendations were
proposed, including: 1) only young fish should be tagged and preferably
those one year old; 2) specimens should be taken from areas other than the
turbulent ocean surf environment; and 3) both recovery and holding tanks
should be utilized, with tagged fish retained for a period of observation
prior to release.
Competitors: Among the main competitors for food and habitat of the
northern kingfish are other benthic members of the sciaenid family,
especially in areas of overlapping range. These species would include other
members of the genus Menticirrhus; spot, Leiostomus xanthurus; Atlantic
croaker, Micropogonias undulatus; red drum, Sciaenops ocellata; black drum,
Pogonias cromis.
Predators: Little information exists on the nature or extent of predation
upon kingfish. Existing evidence indicates mortality due to predation is
probably low, at least with respect to juveniles. Adults are probably
subject, to some extent, to predation by sharks, particularly the sand
tiger, Odontaspis taurus.
Parasites: The following parasitic trematodes of northern kingfish have
been reported: Prosorhynchus gracilescens, Nannoenterum baculum,
Stephanostomum tenue, Lebouria truncata, Cymbephallus vitellosus,
Cymbephallus fimbriatus, Lepocreadium trullaforme, Homalometron palladum,
Brachyphallus crenatus, Sinurus pingus, Distoma sp. The occurrence of the
ectoparasitic copepod, Livoneca ovalis, has also been reported.
NUTRITION AND GROWTH: Feeding: Northern kingfish feeding habits are
directly related to its morphology and habitat preferences. The well
flattened profile, inferior mouth, and mandibular barbel all indicate bottom
feeding behavior. The preference for sandy bottoms in warm waters is
reflected in the sedentary forms which make up the diet of this rather
sluggish fish. Northern kingfish are opportunistic feeders; the diet
selection is predominately a function of food availability.
Body shape and feeding habitat were correlated in six co-occurring juvenile
sciaenid species of the York River Estuary, Virginia. Juvenile northern
kingfish have an elongate, round, and narrow body, and a relatively pointed
tail. These features, combined with an inferior mouth with a pored-barbel,
and relatively smaller eyes than the other sciaenids studied, indicate that
M. saxatilis is a slower swimmer that feeds in the lower water column by
olfaction and touch. Food items of these young northern kingfish indicate a
feeding preference of the epifauna.
Food: The diet of northern kingfish has been described as consisting of
various shrimp (perhaps their chief diet), crabs, other crustaceans, small
Life History - 5 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species kingfish, northern
Species Id M010420
Date 27 AUG 96
mollusks, worms, and young fish. This simple description is applicable to
adult fish.
A report on the stomach contents of juveniles (1-14 cm TL) lists:
INVERTEBRATES
Nematoda
Annelida
Polychaeta
Bryozoa
Platyhelminthes
Cestoda
Arthropoda
Crustacea
Mysidacea
Decapoda
Brachyura (adults and larvae)
Cragonidae
Palemonidae
Isopoda
Amphipoda
Gammarus
Crustacean eggs
Copepoda
Insecta
Diptera
Xiphosura (Limulus)
PROTOCHORDATES
Balanoglossus
VERTEBRATES
Fishes
Gobiidae
Clupeidae
MISCELLANEOUS
gravel, sand
unidentified eggs
detritus
plant detritus
fish scales
This listing, qualitatively, is essentially an expansion of the generalized
adult diet. Quantitative volumetric comparison of stomach contents batween
juveniles and adults indicates differences in food preference. These
differences may be a function of size and improved predatory ability, loss
of a functional swim bladder in adults, or simply a reflection of available
prey.
Growth rate: It was stated by earlier authors that the growth of the
northern kingfish is exceedingly rapid during the first summer of life.
Based on a study in New York waters, it was concluded that growth during the
first summer is more rapid than reported by previous researchers. It would
appear that some fish, probably those hatched in late May or early June, are
capable of attaining by October a modal length of nearly 250 mm with a
maximum length of 300 mm. Other estimated modal lengths are more
conservative. Based on data of combined sexes, it was indicated that
northern kingfish attain approximate average sizes of 260 mm by the second
Life History - 6 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species kingfish, northern
Species Id M010420
Date 27 AUG 96
summer, 325 mm by the second winter, and 335 mm by the third summer, 365 mm
by the third winter, and 375 mm by the fourth summer.
It has been stated that growth falls off in the autumn and practically
ceases during the winter. The major period of annual growth for the
northern kingfish is from mid-summer to late fall.
MIGRATIONS AND LOCAL MOVEMENTS: In a study of the Sciaenidae of the east
coast of the United States, it was stated that the entire family, as
represented in this region, shows well-defined migratory movements, which
are evidenced annually by a disappearance of these fishes from inshore
waters in winter. The northern kingfish was classified as a summer fish
which appears on the coast in May and vanishes in October. The wintering
grounds are unknown, but presumed to be offshore and to the south in deeper
waters.
SCHOOLING: Northern kingfish run in schools, keep close to the ground, and
prefer hard or sandy bottom.
RESPONSE TO STIMULI: Laboratory studies on thermal requirements of five
species of estuarine fish, including the northern kingfish, were performed.
Thermal requirements, avoidance temperature, and upper thermal tolerance
levels were determined. For the single experiment conducted on northern
kingfish in a gradient tank, individuals of two different sizes were used.
The larger fish died first, between 35-36 deg C, while the smaller fish died
between 36-37 deg C. Avoidance of the warmer end of the tank by smaller
fish occurred at 30-30.5 deg C, while larger fish did not exhibit avoidance
behavior until 31.2 deg C.
Males of many sciaenids have a sound-producing apparatus associated with the
swim bladder. It is generally believed that the drumming sound produced is
used at the time of spawning. Members of the genus Menticirrhus, however,
are assumed mute, as the swim bladder is lacking in adults.
A well-developed and apparently functional swim bladder was noted in
juvenile (i.e., young-of-the-year) northern kingfish, which atrophies and
becomes nonfunctional during the first winter of life. Whether or not this
phenomenon is related to the different environments inhabited by juveniles
and adults is unknown, although adaption to environmental change is a
possibility. Juvenile northern kingfish are usually found in the relatively
quiet waters of estuaries where a swim bladder might be an asset in feeding
and escaping from estuaries. The adults, however, primarily inhabit the
turbulent ocean surf where the absence of a swim bladder might be more
advantageous to survival.
The presence of a swim bladder in young northern kingfish might influence
the sensitivity of young fish to temperature and the thermal tolerance of
heated waters.
POPULATION: Sex ratio: From unpublished data it was found that the sex
ratio (males:females) of northern kingfish did not differ significantly from
1:1. Variations in the ratio related to size, age, and seasonality were not
examined.
Age compostion: The population of northern kingfish in Long Island waters
is generally comprised of either two or three age groups depending upon the
season of the year. In spring and early summer 1- and 2-year-old fish are
Life History - 7 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species kingfish, northern
Species Id M010420
Date 27 AUG 96
dominant, while from mid-summer to late fall young-of-the-year, -year-olds,
and 2-year-olds make up the bulk of the catch. Three-year-old fish are few
in number during all seasons, and 4-year-olds (the oldest group collected)
are practically nonexistent.
This seasonal pattern is reflected in the sport fishery catch. From May
through July the catch is composed primarily of 1- and 2-year-old fish.
These two age groups represent approximately 95% of the sport catch.
Three-year-olds comprise <5%, and young-of-the-year are entirely absent.
From August through October, 1- and 2-year-old fish represent less than 75%
of the catch, and young-of-the-year, now in the fishery, comprise
approximately 30%. Three-year-old and older fish remain at less than 5%.
This small range in age may, at least partially, account for historical
fluctuations in size composition and abundance noted by earlier authors.
Size composition: The age-length relationship in northern kingfish by sexes
was examined using the vonBertalannfly growth-in-length function. The
resulting equations are:
males: Lt = 386.6 [1-e ^-.7014 (tn + .5505)]
femles: Lt = 447.5 [1-e ^-.5558 (tn + .6186)]
where: Lt is total length at age t, and tn is the age of the fish in the
nth age group where t1=0. From these equations, the average size (in mm TL)
for males and females are:
males: age I, 256.3; age II, 322.0; age III, 354.6; age IV, 370.7
females: age I, 265.5; age II, 343.1; age III, 387.6; age IV, 413.1
The expected maximum average sizes are 386.6 mm Tl for males and 447.5 for
females.
The largest northern kingfish on record is a 550 mm female in its third
year, weighing 1500 grams captured in a commercial gill net.
Several length-weight relations for northern kingfish have been reported.
No statistically significant differences were found between regression
equations for males and females. These equations are:
male: log W = -5.3905 + 3.1602 log L (n = 216)
female: log W = -5.0491 + 3.0261 log L (n = 275)
combined: log W = -5.1737 + 3.0747 log L (r = .96)
Based on a sampling of 110 fish with a size range of 51-410 mm, taken from
the New York Bight, the following was determined:
log W = -5.1995 + 3.1052 log L, r = .99
ABUNDANCE AND DENSITY: It is conceivable that the absence of any one or
more age group (O, I, or II) from the overall population could result in a
severe reduction in numbers and cause a major change in the length
composition of the catch. It seems reasonable to conclude, therefore, that
the level of abundance and the size distribution of the northern kingfish
population is highly dependent upon the success or failure of individual
year classes.
Variability in local abundance, reflected in the changes in availability to
the sport fisheries (especially surf catches) of New York and New Jersey,
has been attributed to the seasonal migratory patterns of northern kingfish.
Trawl survay data indicate that the seasonal availability of the northern
kingfish, all sizes considered, is greatest during the months of September
and October.
NATALITY AND RECRUITMENT: Northern kingfish inhabit the ocean surf and
Life History - 8 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species kingfish, northern
Species Id M010420
Date 27 AUG 96
estuaries, therefore reproductive success is influenced by the quality of
the shore waters.
MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY: Annual mortality rates from age-frequency data for
the years 1962 through 1964 were estimated. Based on the formula A =
1-e^-z, where z is the estimate of the instantaneous rate of mortality, the
annual mortality rates were:
1962: A = 1 - e^-1.413 = 0.76
1963: A = 1 - e^-1.386 = 0.75
1964: A = 1 - e^-2.117 = 0.88
These estimates suggest a high mortality rate *187*.
LIFE HISTORY CODES -
Breeding Spawning Season: April
Breeding/Spawning Season: May
Breeding/Spawning Season: June
Breeding/Spawning Season: July
Breeding/Spawning Season: August
Duration of Pair Bond: No pair bond formed
Gestation/Incubation Period: 1-2 days
Gestation/Incubation Period: 3-4 days
REFERENCES FOR LIFE HISTORY- 187
Life History - 9 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species kingfish, northern
Species Id M010420
Date 27 AUG 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Any present regulations and/or limitations on either the commercial or
recreational fisheries of the northern kingfish are the responsibility of
the individual Atlantic coast states *187*.
NATALITY AND RECRUITMENT: Northern kingfish inhabit the ocean surf and
estuaries, therefore reproductive success is influenced by the quality of
the shore waters.*187*
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species kingfish, northern
Species Id M010420
Date 27 AUG 96
References
187* Ralph, Daniel E. 1982. Biological and fisheries data on northern
kingfisher, Menticirrhus saxatilis (Bloch and Schneider). National Marine
Fisheries Service/NOAA, Technical Series Report No. 27. Highlands, N.J.
190 * Robins, C.R., R.M. Bailey, C.E. Bond, J.R. Brooker, E.A.
Lachner, R.N. Lea, and W.B. Scott. 1980. A list of common and
scientific names of fishes from the United States and Canada.
American Fisheries Society, Special Publ. No. 12, 4th edition
(computerized version):65 pp.
References - 1