(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species puffer, northern
Species Id M010500
Date 26 AUG 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - puffer, northern
OTHER COMMON NAMES - northern puffer, balloonfish, bellowsfish, blowfish, blower, bottlefish, globefish, puffer, Rabbitfish, Sea Squab, Swell Belly and Swell Toad
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Fish
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - Vertebrata, Craniata
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - Osteichthyes, Actinopterygii
ORDER AND SUBORDER - Tetradoniformes, Tetradontoidei
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - Tetradontidae,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - Sphoeroides,
SPECIES AND SSP - maculatus,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - Sphoeroides maculatus
AUTHORITY - Bloch and Schneider
TAXONOMY REFERENCES - 181
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Objective synonymy:
Tetro hispidus, Schopf, 1974
Tetrodon hispidus var. maculatus, Bloch and Schnieder, 1801
Tetrodon turgidus, Mitchill, 1815
Stenometopus binummulatus (Bibron), Troschel, 1856
Gastrophysus turgidus, Gill, 1873
Cilichthyes turgidus, Yarrow, 1977
Cirrisomus turgidus, Jordan and Gilbert, 1878
Spheroides maculatus, Jordan and Edwards, 1886
Orbidus maculatus, Moore, 1894
Tetradon maculatus, Nochols and Breder, 1927
Tetrodon maculatus, Truitt, Bean, and Fowler, 1929
Sphoeroides maculatus, Jordan, Evermann, and Clark, 1930
Sphaeroides maculatus, Fraser-Brunner, 1943
Tetrodon punctatus, LeDanois, 1959
Etymology: The generic name is derived from the Greek words meaning sphere
and resemblance. It is based on the front view of the fish. The specific
name, maculatus, is Latin, meaning spotted.
Other common names include balloonfish, bellowsfish, blowfish, blower,
bottlefish, globefish, puffer, rabbitfish, sea squab (market name), swell
belly, and swell toad *181*.
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species puffer, northern
Species Id M010500
Date 26 AUG 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Sport Fish
Commercial
Commercial/consumption
REFERENCES FOR STATUS - 181
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
The northern puffer became an important food fish as a result of meat
rationing during World War II which promoted the coastal fisheries. The
largest catch from the New York area was almost 1,060 t in 1945.
Thereafter, the catch dropped off to less than 430 t, increased to another
high with almost a million pounds landed in 1963, and then decreased again
to 41 t in 1969. The decrease in puffer landings in New York was attributed
to the development of the Chesapeake Bay fishery which in turn caused a
large drop in prices. The decrease in the puffer catch from the bays along
the eastern portion of Long Island may be attributed to overfishing, the
decline of pound net fishing, or natural causes. The decrease has been
considerable, from a high in 1963 of over 385 t (more than 90% of the total
commercials landings of puffer in New York) to 41 t in 1969 (less than 35%
of the total puffer landings in New York). Results based on the recent
increase in fishery activity for puffers in Long Island Sound and the ocean,
suggest that the fishery may virtually be an underexploited resource in
state waters. This fish is considered an important species comprising the
New York coastal export fishery. However, puffers did not make up a large
portion of export fishery in the bays of eastern Long Island and therefore
did not affect the commercial fishery there. The rise in the 1960 to 1963
commercial landings is attributed to an actual abundance increase. This was
substantiated by sport fishery studies. From 1960 to 1962 the sport catch
in Great South Bay rose from 58,000 to about 314,000 fish. The sport catch
in 1963 was slightly less than the previous years. Results from beach seine
catches along the South Shore of Long Island in 1962 and 1963 showed puffers
comprised about 66% of the catch. In 1961, puffers made up less than 1% of
the catch.
Northern puffer sold in the fresh fish trade are dressed, skinned, and the
meat sold under the market name of sea squab. The protein quality of meat
is about equal to beef. In periods of abundance when supply exceeds the
market demand, some are frozen for future sale. Some are also used for
reduction into fish meal *181*.
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Distribution
Species puffer, northern
Species Id M010500
Date 26 AUG 96
DISTRIBUTION
Distribution - 1 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Marine FL. V 1
Marine, intertidal FL. V 1
Estuarine FL1 V 1
Estuarine FL3 V 1
Estuarine FL2 V 1
Marine FL. V 1
Marine, intertidal FL2 V 1
REFERENCES FOR NWI - 181
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Adult puffers are coastal fishes found from the tide line in estuaries to a
depth of only a few fathoms offshore. Where the range of the northern
puffer overlaps that of the southern puffer (S. nephalus) off northeastern
Florida, the former is found in open and deeper waters and the latter
inhabit estuaries. Northern puffers are considered demersal, however, they
are known to actively move throughout the water column. They prefer sandy
substrate, near to or amid sea wrack, but are also found over silt, mud,
shell, or gravel bottom.
Puffers spawn throughout their range of abundance in shoal water, close to
shore. The larvae are pelagic. Juveniles are semidemersal and inhabit the
intertidal zone over smooth bottom *181*.
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species puffer, northern
Species Id M010500
Date 26 AUG 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
OMNIVORE
REFERENCES FOR TROPHIC LEVEL - 181
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Molluscs Not Specified
General Bivalve Molluscs Not Specified
General Crustaceans Not Specified
General Echinoderms Not Specified
General Sea/Heart Urchins Not Specified
General Annelids Not Specified
General Gastrotriches Not Specified
General Bryozoans Not Specified
General Sponges Not Specified
General Sea Squirts Not Specified
General Cyanophyta Not Specified
General Phaeophyta Not Specified
General Rhodophyta Not Specified
General Isoptera Not Specified
General Cirripeds Not Specified
General Malacostraca Not Specified
REFERENCES FOR GENERAL FOOD - 181
COMMENTS ON FOOD -
The following is a composite list of dietary constituents as reported by
various sources:
Pelecypods (including scallops, jingle shells, clams, Solemya sp., oysters,
mussels, razor clams), gastropods (including Haminoea), barnacles (Balanus
sp.), limpets, crabs (including blue, mud), isopods, hermit crabs, shrimp
(including mantis), cumaceans, amphipods, caprellids, sea urchins (including
Arbacia sp.), sea urchin spines, tests of sea urchins (Moira atropos),
annelids, worm tubes, bryzoa, sponges, sea anemones, sea squirts, seaweed,
algae, and watermelon seed.
Throughout their range puffers appear to be opportunistic feeders, preying
mainly on available invertebrates. Their powerful jaws enable them to crush
and devour anything they capture. When preying on small crabs, puffers
attempt to paralyze the crustacean by making the first bite in front so as
to sever the nerve ganglion. Puffers are known to unite in a group to
attack a blue crab. Feeding occurs during daylight as puffers are
nocturnally inactive *181*.
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species puffer, northern
Species Id M010500
Date 26 AUG 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
RA Estuarine habitat zone: specified in comments
RA Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Mud or silt
RA Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Sand
RA Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Gravel
G Relation to Substrate: Unattached - normally free living
RA Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
RA
RJ Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Specified in Comments
RJ Estuarine habitat zone: specified in comments
RJ Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
RJ
RL Estuarine habitat zone: specified in comments
RL Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
RL
LIM Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
BA Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Specified in Comments
REFERENCES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 181
REFERENCES FOR LIMITING ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 181
REFERENCES FOR RESTING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 181
REFERENCES FOR BREEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 181
REFERENCES FOR RESTING JUVENILE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 181
REFERENCES FOR RESTING LARVAE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 181
COMMENTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS -
HABITAT ZONE: Northern puffers are coastal fishes found from the tide line
in estuaries to a depth of only a few fathoms offshore.
SUBSTRATE: Northern puffers prefer sandy substrate but are also found over
silt, mud, shell, or gravel bottom.
TEMPERATURE: Northern puffer are found in water temperatures ranging from
10.0 to 34.1 deg C.
SALINITY: Puffers are found in salinities normal to a coastal and
estuarine environment. Adults are found in salinities from 6.7 to 34 oo/o
*181*.
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species puffer, northern
Species Id M010500
Date 26 AUG 96
COMMENTS ON RESTING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
HABITAT ZONE: Northern puffers are coastal fishes found from the tide line
in estuaries to a depth of only a few fathoms offshore.
SUBSTRATE: Northern puffers prefer sandy substrate but are also found over
silt, mud, shell, or gravel bottom.
TEMPERATURE: Northern puffer are found in water temperatures ranging from
10.0 to 34.1 deg C.
SALINITY: Puffers are found in salinities normal to a coastal and
estuarine environment. Adults are found in salinities from 6.7 to 34 oo/o
*181*.
COMMENTS ON BREEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
SUBSTRATE: A pair of puffers spawned in captivity. Eggs were deposited in
sand.*181*.
COMMENTS ON RESTING JUVENILE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
HABITAT ZONE: Juvenile puffers are semidemersal and inhabit the intertidal
zone.
SUBSTRATE: Juveniles are found over a smooth bottom.
TEMPERATURE: Juvenile puffers inhabit water temperatures from 16 to 26 deg
C.
SALINITY: Results of a survey show that juvenile puffers occur at
salinities ranging from 12 to 2 0/00. They have been found at salinities
up to 32.2 0/00 *181*.
COMMENTS ON RESTING LARVAE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
HABITAT ZONE: Northern puffer larvae are pelagic.
TEMPERATURE: Larvae are found in water temperatures from 16 to 26 deg C.
SALINITY: Larval puffers occur in a salinity range of 12 to 21 o/oo *181*.
Environment Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species puffer, northern
Species Id M010500
Date 26 AUG 96
LIFE HISTORY
MORPHOLOGY: Head 2.7 to 3 in SL in adults, longer in subadults. Snout 1.7
to 2.1 in head, longest in adults. Eye 4 to 8 in head, but most often
large, about 5 in head. Least bony interorbit flat to slightly concave,
moderately broad, 2.4 to 4 in snout, usually about 3.3 in snout, about 6.5
in head. Dorsal fin origin opposite posterior edge of anal opening,
slightly anterior to anal fin origin. Caudal truncate or slightly rounded
but often with the uppermost rays longest. Length of exposed medial caudal
rays about equal to snout length, about 2 in head. Pectoral fins moderately
long, about 3.1 in snout, 2.5 in head. Dorsal rays 8, anal rays 7, pectoral
rays usually 15 or 16 (rarely 17). Caudal rays 11, with the first upper
and two lower rays usually unbranched.
Pigmentation restricted to dorsolateral surfaces. Basal pigmentation is
usually gray, which fades laterally. Poorly defined black spots cover the
dorsal surfaces, and a vague dark bar transverses the interorbital region.
A vague dark saddle extends transversely across the dorsum and passes
through the base of the dorsal fin. Another similar saddle is present
across the dorsal area of the caudal penduncle. Tiny jet-black pepper spots
(about 1 mm in diameter) are scattered over most of the pigmented surface,
and are especially evident on the cheeks. The flanks posterior to the
pectoral fins are marked with 5-7 bars or elongate spots, usually vertical
but occasionally slightly diagonal. These extend from the basal
pigmentation of the dorsum to the lower margin of the flank, which lacks
basal pigmentation. An intense black spot or bar is present at the
posterior axil of the pectoral fin. Distinct bars or spots are usually
absent on the flanks anterior to the pectorals. The base and distal half of
the caudal may be dusky with a lighter central region, but often the entire
caudal may appear uniformly dusky. The other fins are nearly devoid of
pigment.
Lappets are never present. All body surfaces anterior to the anus or anal
fin origin and dorsal origin are densely covered with strong, close-set
prickles except around the mouth. Almost the entire body is covered with
small, slightly imbricate dermal structures which resemble fish scales.
REPRODUCTION: The sexes are separate. Both sexes of puffers are sexually
mature by their second growing season (i.e. age 1). Individuals as small as
88 mm are capable of spawning. Little is known about the breeding habits of
the puffer, but they are probably polygamous and promiscuous. Egg
fertilization is external.
Gonads: The two gonads of a gravid puffer are dissimilar in that the left
gonad is considerably larger than the right. The left ovary of a ripe
female is 1.2 to 2.0 times larger and 1.6 times heavier than the right.
However, a fecundity estimate can be made from either a single or combined
ovarian sample as the eggs from both left and right ovaries are similar in
size, ranging from 0.35 to 0.7 mm in diameter. This size range is
conservative as the ovaries used in the study were treated with Gilson's
fluid which causes egg shrinkage. No information was found describing the
size difference for the male gonads.
The fecundity of the puffer was first reported in 1928. The ovaries of a
265 mm fish were estimated to contain 176,000 eggs of similar size. A
subsequent study showed this to be low by about 273,000 eggs. The total
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species puffer, northern
Species Id M010500
Date 26 AUG 96
fecundity increases both as a linear function of fish weight (Fecundity =
-735.28 + 754.21 body weight in grams, the coefficient of determination r
sqr = 0.86) and as a function of total length. The average relative
fecundity is 5,204 eggs per gram ovarian net weight and 751 eggs per gram
body weight. The amount of ovarian tissue when compared to the total body
weight ranges from 6.3 to 19.2% with an average of 13.8%.
Spawning: The spawning season is protracted, beginning in late spring in
the Chesapeake and progressing northward throughout the entire summer and
early fall. No information was found on spawning time south of Cape
Hatteras.
Mating has not been observed, but puffers probably spawn during daylight
hours as they are known to be quiescent and lie on the bottom at night. A
pair of northern puffers spawned while in captivity. The eggs were
deposited in the sand, partially buried in a circular pattern with a
diameter about equal to the length of the fish. There was no evidence of
parental care of the eggs.
The number of times puffers spawn during a spawning season is not known, but
males may spawn more than once as they are ripe longer than females.
Differences in sex ratios on the spawning grounds, which may be attributed
to reproductive behavior, also indicate male spawn more than once. In both
May and November, the ratio of males to females is 1:1. However, during the
summer and early fall spawning season, this ratio changes to 1:3. When
spawning peaks in June and July, males are least abundant.
Eggs: The eggs are transparent, spherical, and invested with a smooth
adhesive covering which is irregular in outline. They are demersal and
readily become attached to any submerged object, or caked in a mass, owing
to their adhesive nature. Where numbers adhere to the side of a container,
close together and in a single layer, the adhesive envelope assumes a
somewhat hexogonal appearance. The surfaces of the eggs are finely
reticulated, rather resembling crepe paper. The eggs average about 0.874 mm
in diameter, varying from .85 to .91 mm, while the enveloping adhesive coat
increases the diameter to an average of about .954 mm. A large number of
colorless oil globules of low refractive index are present in a foamy
cluster, which averages about .34 mm in diameter, and a very faint olive
tinge can be detected in the area in which the blastoderm is to develop.
Embryos: The incubation period for puffer eggs is 112 hr at a water
temperature of about 20 deg C. Two hr following fertilization, first
cleavage is complete, and by 16 hr, the germ ring begins to form. At 24 hr,
the embryo is distinct, and by hr 44 it is more than half way around the
yolk. At 70 hr, vertebral somites are visible and scattered black
chromatophores appear along each side of the embryo. The eyes are now
distinct, the tail tip is free and the oil globules are located in the
dorsal part of the yolk. At 90 hr, red and orange chromatophores appear
along each side in addition to those of black already present. Several small
black chromatophores are present on the tip of the snout and in the
posterior portion of the iris. Numerous large black dendritic chromatophores
are on the ventral surface of the yolk. The oil globules have combined in a
few large droplets. Just prior to hatching the embryo increases in pigment
content. The pigmentation extends posteriorly and ends abruptly midway
between the vent and the tip of the notochord. Where the pigmentation
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species puffer, northern
Species Id M010500
Date 26 AUG 96
terminates, a brilliant opaque chrome yellow spot appears on the dorsal
surface of either the embryo or the newly hatched larva.
Larvae: Most larvae hatch tail first and are about 2.4 mm long. The small
yolk sac still contains oil globules. Pigmentation on the body consists of
many brilliant red, orange, yellow, and black chromatophores. Numerous
small tubercles are present over most of the body. Twenty-four hours after
hatching the nostrils are visible, the lateral line organs begin to appear,
the pectorals are distinct, and the eye pupil is black. At 48 hours the
yolk material is reduced, the mouth and vent are open and green pigmentation
appears, particularly in the iris. After 72 hours the mouth is functioning.
When the larvae are 7 mm long, they possess many diagnostic adult
characters, and are capable of inflation. They are, however, more thick in
stature than adults, have larger eyes, and lack the adult color pattern.
Juveniles: The general morphology of juvenile fish as such is similar to
that of adults, but there are differences in pigmentation patterns between
the two. Young fish lack the dark black "pepper" spots which appear when
the individual is from 40 to 100 mm long. The large dark lateral marks on
the juveniles become oblong in shape and characterize adult patternization.
The development of prickles occurs in individuals as small as 10 mm.
ADULTS: Hardiness: Laboratory experiments on the effect of sudden changes
in water temperature indicate that puffers can withstand the recovery from
heat shock better than cold shock. The upper mean tolerance limit for these
fish is 32.5 deg C for a period of 72 hours, and they cannot withstand
temperatures below 8 deg C. Results from thermal tests show a mean upper
avoidance temperature of 31.1 deg C (range: 30.6-31.7 deg C). In comparing
these results with the reported temperature range of 10.0 to 34.1 deg C as
found in nature, there is good agreement with the low temperature. An
apparent discrepency exists with the high temperature of 34.1 deg C reported
from field survey data and the laboratory test result of 32.5 deg C. The
difference may be attributed to variation between surface and bottom
temperatures. Only surface temperature was reported.
Predators: No specific information was found on natural marine predators.
The fish hawk, Pandion haliaetus, may prey upon the puffer, however the only
account found describes the unsuccessful attempts by a fish hawk to capture
these fish as they would inflate themselves out of the bird's talons.
Parasites, diseases, injuries, and abnormalities: Cyclopoid copepods were
found to be parasitic to northern puffers collected from the Woods Hole,
Massachusetts area. Specimens of the copepods Tucca corpulentus Wilson and
Pseudochondracanthus diceraus Wilson were attached to the fins and gills,
respectively, of puffers. Copepod collections at the U.S. National Museum
were examined and it was reported that catalogue number 79595 labeled P.
diceraus collected by Wilson from "Gills, Spheroides maculatus" as
misidentified. These are instead T. corpulentus.
The following parasitic worms were found in northern puffers from the
Beaufort, North Carolina area:
Nematoda - Ascaris spp.
- A. habena Linton
Cestoda - Tetrarhynchus bisulcatus Linton
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species puffer, northern
Species Id M010500
Date 26 AUG 96
Trematoda - Distomum vibex Linton
- Gasterostomum gracilescens Rudolphi
NUTRITION AND GROWTH: Feeding: Throughout their range, puffers appear to
be opportunistic feeders, preying mainly on available invertebrates. Their
powerful jaws enable them to crush and devour anything they capture. When
preying on small crabs, northern puffers attempt to paralyze the crustacean
by making the first bite in front so as to sever the nerve ganglion.
Puffers are known to unite in a group to attack a blue crab. Feeding occurs
during daylight hours as puffers are nocturnally inactive.
Food: The following is a composite list of dietary constituents:
Pelecypods (including scallops, jingle shells, clams, Solemya sp., oysters,
mussels, razor clams), gastropods (including Haminoea), barnacles (Balanus
sp.), limpets, crabs (including blue, mud), isopods, hermit crabs, shrimp
(including Arbacia sp.), sea urchin spines, tests of sea urchins (Moira
atropos), annelids, worm tubes, bryzoa, sponges, sea anemones, sea squirts,
seaweed, algae, and watermelon seed.
GROWTH RATE: The linear growth rate for young-of-the-year fish of
approximately 16 mm TL was calculated to be 1.11 mm/day over a term of 45
days. In 1969 the growth rate was 0.93 mm/day over a time period of 60
days.
Growth marks on the vertebrae of northern puffer are used for age
determination. The saccular otoliths develop growth rings, but they are
difficult to interpret. In larger fish the annuli cannot be distinguished.
For all age groups, females are larger than males. An analysis of annuli
shows most growth takes place during the first growing season from June to
October. It is during this period that the significant difference in the
lengths obtained by males and females takes place. Thereafter the growth
difference between males and females is not significant.
Metabolism: Experimental results indicate that the northern puffer is a
relatively sluggish fish. Fish activity is generally related to the
concentation of various blood constituents such as hemoglobin, erythrocyte
number, iron, and sugar. For example, those species with a high hemoglobin
concentration can carry on metabolic functions at a higher rate than species
with low amounts of hemoglobin. The hemoglobin content in the blood of
northern puffer is not considered high and ranges from 5.99 to 12.50 gm/100
ml (mean 9.41 gm/100 ml); the erythrocyte count ranges from 209 to 502/cu
mm/10^4 (mean 342/cu mm/10^4). Active pelagic fish have a higher blood iron
concentration than fish that are benthic oriented and relatively inactive.
The northern puffer iron values rank it as an inactive fish. Concentations
range from 17.1 to 28.8 mg/100 cc blood with an average of 21.5 mg/100 cc
blood. Blood sugar is also similarly related and in the northern puffer the
sugar concentation ranges from 4.5 to 41.3 mg/100 cc blood with an average
of 23.1 mg/cc blood. Tests made to determine the effect of insulin in blood
sugar showed that puffers did not experience shock with a reduction in blood
sugar concentrations whereas more active species, i.e., mackerel and
menhaden, shocked when similarly tested. The volume of blood flow in
relation to cardiac output usually remains proportional to the overall
metabolism of an organism. For puffer, the minimum cardiac output was
computed to be 15.5 ml/kg/mm based on an oxygen capacity of 6.75 ml/02/100
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species puffer, northern
Species Id M010500
Date 26 AUG 96
ml of blood, and a maximum oxygen consumption of 1.05 ml/kg/min was
computed.
MIGRATIONS AND LOCAL MOVEMENTS: Northern puffers are sluggish and move by
the use of fins rather than by forceful body action. They are known to
partially bury themselves in soft bottom by a shoveling motion of their
specially developed post-clavicular apparatus. They move through the water
column during daylight, but at night become quiescent and lie on the bottom.
This difference in diel activity was also observed in captive specimens.
Anglers caught more northern puffers during the day. Juveniles may also
exhibit a similar diel variation in activity. Surface meter net collections
indicate significantly more juvenile tetrodontids collected during the day
than at night.
SCHOOLING: Young fish are found in large rambling schools. Adults are more
solitary.
RESPONSE TO STIMULI: Blowfish are capable of inflating themselves for a
temporary period. The inflating mechanism consists of the powerful muscles
of the first branchiostegal ray, which depress a pad covering the
ceratohyals, thus expanding the mouth cavity and drawing in water or air.
The elevation of the ceratohyals forces the fluid into the sac, which is a
ventral diverticulum of the stomach, partially separated from it by a
sphincter-like ring. Fluid is retained in the diverticulum by the strong
oesophageal sphincter and by the pylorus. The flap-like breathing valve in
the mouth does little or nothing in this connection. The opercular valves
prevent leakage during the compression stroke, but the distended state of
the sac can be maintained even when they are held open or removed. The
fluid in the sac is released by the relaxation of the oesophageal sphincter
which allows the fluid to escape from the fish through the oral and
opercular openings. The water used in inflation is released in intermittent
spurts at first, followed by a stream, and finally declining to a trickle.
The inflation capacity can be related to the standard length of the fish or
with the formula: (SL x 0.61)^3 x 0.0005236 = cc.
Defensive swelling usually occurs with the accompaniment of sounds which are
described as long bursts of creaking erk-erks. These sounds are caused
mainly by the grinding of the upper and lower jaw plates and to a small
degree the swim bladder may aid as an amplifier. Similar sounds are made
during feeding and may serve to attract other puffers that are remote from
the feeder. Laboratory tests with the use of electric stimulation produced
sounds consisting of low dull thumps and usually did not induce inflation of
the fish.
When puffers are exposed to temperatures approaching their thermal
tolerance, they show certain characteristic behavioral changes. Heat shock
is exhibited by an increase in both respiratory and general activity along
with equilibrium disturbances such as darting, floating, surfacing, tail
elevation, constant fin movement, and imbalance. Cold shock is
characterized by convulsive spasms, equilibrium loss, and increased
respiratory activity. When subjected to gradually colder temperatures,
different behavior patterns are displayed. For example, the feeding aim is
adversely affected below 12.8 deg C. Puffers will not inflate, even when
stimulated, when the temperature is less than 10 deg C. Swimming becomes
sluggish and the fish remain near the bottom. when the temperature drops to
Life History - 5 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species puffer, northern
Species Id M010500
Date 26 AUG 96
4.4 deg C they were observed to ascend in a horizontal, upright position.
Swimming remained sluggish. The fish will succumb to temperatures of
3.3-4.4 deg C by decreasing all activity and sinking to the bottom.
TOXICITY: The family Tetradontidae includes many species that are notably
toxic. A type of fish poisoning is commonly known as puffer poisoning. A
species which is toxic in one area may not be poisonous in another. The
toxicity of these fish is largely influenced by their reproductive cycle.
Prior to and during their spawning season they are most poisonous. Many
researchers believe that toxic algae may be a component in the production of
tetradotoxin. The skin, liver, ovaries, and intestines are generally the
most toxic parts of the puffer. The musculature at times may be poisonous.
Tetradotoxin cannot be determined by the size or appearance of the fish.
Small puffers can contain enough toxin to be lethal. The opison acts mainly
on the nerve centers of the victim. Death is the result of suffocation and
cardiac paraysis. Cooking the fish cannot destroy the toxin and there is no
known antidote for puffer poisoning.
POPULATION: Size composition: The maximum size for puffers is 35.6 cm (14
inches) but most are less than 25.4 cm (10 inches) in length. A comparison
of the length to weight relationship between sexes shows males weigh less
than females at a given length. The modal weight of females is about 82 g
more than males for fish collected off New Jersey. Fish collected from
Virginia waters were examined and it was found that about 89 to 99% of the
variation in weight is associated with variation in length of pre- and
post-spawning puffers of each sex. Puffers of both sexes were heavier after
recovery from spawning (late July to November) than fish of comparable
length before spawning (April to early July). Covariance tests indicated
that this difference in weight was not significant in females but was in
males at the 5% level. A large increase in muscle and liver tissue occurred
during the growing season but was not quantified. By November fish appeared
more robust and had larger livers than in April.
A comparison of the length to weight data on fish collected from both
Virginia and New Jersey shows that for a corresponding length, Virginia
puffers are heavier even though the feeding habits are similar in the two
areas. Results of comparisons of the weights of various body organs, i.e.,
the heart, liver, spleen, and gut to the entire body weight of the fish did
not indicate any sex-related differences in organ-body weight ratios.
Population in the community and the ecosystem: A wide variety of other
fishes cohabit the same area as northern puffer. However, the
interrelationships of the species in the community and ecosystem are not
known. The results of surveys deal with the relative abundance in which
puffers occur.
There is no information available on the cyclic fluctuations of puffer
populations. Documented evidence on changes in environmental factors and
their effect on the population is scarce. The mass puffer kill that
occurred off the New Jersey coast in mid-May 1969 may have been attributed
to a combination of nocturnal behavior and an influx of cold water. Bottom
temperatures ranged from 4 to 9 deg C in the New York Bight during that time
period *181*.
Life History - 6 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species puffer, northern
Species Id M010500
Date 26 AUG 96
LIFE HISTORY CODES -
Breeding/Spawning Season: May
Breeding/Spawning Season: June
Breeding/Spawning Season: July
Breeding/Spawning Season: August
Breeding/Spawning Season: September
Breeding/Spawning Season: October
Spawning Site: Sand
Gestation/Incubation Period: 5-7 days
Average Number of Offspring/Reproductive Effort: Grea
Parental Care of Young: No care given young
Periodicity: Active in day
REFERENCES FOR LIFE HISTORY- 181
Life History - 7 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species puffer, northern
Species Id M010500
Date 26 AUG 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Northern puffers are not fished for specifically on a commercial basis, and
are incidental to the main catch. The recreational fishery consists of hook
and line fishing from both shore and boats. As puffers readily take bait,
they are considered a nuisance by some anglers seeking other fish species.
They are fished during the warmer months in the northern part of their
range, and probably year-round in the southern part of their range. No
information was found concerning protection and management of the species
*181*.
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species puffer, northern
Species Id M010500
Date 26 AUG 96
References
181* Sibunka, J.D. and A.L. Pacheco. 1981. Biological and fisheries data on
northern puffer, Sphoeroides maulatus (Bloch and Schneider). Technical
Series Report No. 26. National Marine Fisheries Service/NOAA. Highlands,
N.J.
References - 1