(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species eider, common
Species Id M040071
Date 26 AUG 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - eider, common
OTHER COMMON NAMES - eider duck, American eider, northern eider and Pacific eider
ELEMENT CODE - 04/25/84
AOU CODE - 06/04/85
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - Chordata, Vertebrata
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - Aves,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - Anseriformes,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - Anatidae, Anthyinae
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - Somateria,
SPECIES AND SSP - mollissima,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - Somateria mollissima
AUTHORITY - Linnaeus
TAXONOMY REFERENCES - 539 and 609
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
AKA eider duck *539*; American eider, northern eider,
Pacific eider *538*
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species eider, common
Species Id M040071
Date 26 AUG 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Federal Migratory
Game (Consumptive Recreational)
Accidental
REFERENCES FOR STATUS - 424 and 758
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Distribution
Species eider, common
Species Id M040071
Date 26 AUG 96
DISTRIBUTION
References on County Occurrence - 001, 095, 115, 131, 199, 550, 650, 700, 800, 810 and 830
References on Seasonal Occurrence - Seen rarely in Virginia *607*; casual south to Maryland;
accidental to Florida *609*; rare in Chesapeake Bay; few seen most
winters in the lower Bay; are seen from Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel
from Norfolk to Cape Charles, Virginia; seen across mouth of Bay
*582*;
OTHER DISTRIBUTION
REFERENCES FOR OTHER DISTRIBUTION - A
Distribution - 1 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - Aquatic
REFERENCES FOR HABITAT - 424
LAND USE -
Water
Streams and Canals
Lakes
Bays and Estuaries
Wetland
Nonforested Wetland
Barren Land
Sandy Areas other than Beaches
Bare Exposed Rock
Mixed Barren Land
REFERENCES FOR LAND USE - 539, 538, 554 and 424
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Marine
Estuarine
Lacustrine
REFERENCES FOR NWI - 424
ANIMAL/PLANT SPECIES ASSOCIATIONS -
Diseases and Parasites: Bacterial: Cholera
*1994,2019,2041*
Pseudotuberculosis *2042*
Tuberculosis *1958,2043*
Helminths: Cestodes *1880*
Nematodes *2051*
Protozoan: Coccidia *2061*
Blood parasites *1990,1991,1830*
Ectoparasites *1913*
Miscellaneous *1952*
REFERENCES FOR SPECIES ASSOCIATIONS - 1897, 1942, 1994, 2019, 2041, 2042, 1958, 2043, 1880, 2051, 2061, 1990, 1991, 1830, 1913 and 1952
COMMENTS ON SPECIES ASSOCIATIONS -
Diseases and Parasites: General reference
*538,2825*;
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species eider, common
Species Id M040071
Date 26 AUG 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
Carnivore
REFERENCES FOR TROPHIC LEVEL - 424
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Animals Larva stage
General Animals Adult stage
General Cirripeds Adult stage
General Molluscs Adult stage
General Bivalve Molluscs Adult stage
General Branchiopods Adult stage
General Copepods Adult stage
General Ostracods Adult stage
General Starfish Adult stage
General Sea/Heart Urchins Adult stage
General Osteichthyes Adult stage
General Gasterosteiformes Adult stage
General Snails Adult stage
General Echinoderms Adult stage
General Crustaceans Adult stage
General Malacostraca Adult stage
General Plants Fruit/Seeds
General Tracheophyta Fruit/Seeds
General Angiospermae Fruit/Seeds
General Dicotyledoneae Fruit/Seeds
General Insects Larva stage
General Diptera Larva stage
Important Animals Adult stage
Important Molluscs Adult stage
Important Bivalve Molluscs Adult stage
Juvenile Animals Larva stage
Juvenile Animals Adult stage
Juvenile Molluscs Adult stage
Juvenile Snails Adult stage
Juvenile Crustaceans Adult stage
Juvenile Branchiopods Adult stage
Juvenile Copepods Adult stage
Juvenile Ostracods Adult stage
Juvenile Malacostraca Adult stage
Juvenile Insects Larva stage
Juvenile Diptera Larva stage
REFERENCES FOR GENERAL FOOD - 539, 538, 2825, 554 and 424
REFERENCES FOR IMPORTANT FOOD - 424
REFERENCES FOR JUVENILE FOOD - 538 and 2825
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species eider, common
Species Id M040071
Date 26 AUG 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Aquatic Habitat Zonation: Open water [pelagic zone]
G Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Rubble
G Water Level: Permanently flooded areas
G Water Level: Semi-permanently flooded areas
G Water Depth Preference: 5-10 ft.
G Water Depth Preference: 10-25 ft.
G Soil Needs: Silt
G Soil Needs: Rocky
G Soil Needs: Gravel
G Soil Drainage: Well drained
G Soil Compaction: Easily penetrated
G Terrestrial Features: Rock outcrops
G Terrestrial Features: Depressions
G Terrestrial Features: Bare ground
G Terrestrial Features: Downed logs
G Coastal Features: Sand bars
G Coastal Features: Rocky offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Vegetated offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Rocky beaches
G Coastal Features: Reefs
G Aquatic Features: Pool areas
G Inland Wetlands: Inland open fresh water
G Coastal Wetlands: Coastal open fresh water
G Coastal Wetlands: Sounds and bays
G Aquatic/Terrestrial Ecotones: Woodland/water
G Aquatic/Terrestrial Ecotones: Grassland/water
G Shrubs: Alder
G Shrubs: Other species [list in comments]
G Human Association: Residential houses/chimneys/attics
G Soil Texture: Coarse
REFERENCES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 539, 538, 2825, 607, 554 and 424
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species eider, common
Species Id M040071
Date 26 AUG 96
LIFE HISTORY
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: weight male 2000 g average, female
1500 g average *539*; adult male (breeding) black forehead and black
area around the eye and crown which is divided in the middle by a white
streak to the hind neck; rest of head is white except for sea green
patch extending from ear to occiput, interrupted by a narrow white line
near the back of the head; neck, breast, and mantle are white or creamy
white; rump, tail coverts and tail are black; rest of body black except
for a white patch on each side of rump; most upper wing coverts are
white except for greater secondary coverts which are black; secondaries
black; primaries and their coverts grayish black; eye dark brown; feet
olive green to yellowish with back webs; bill greenish or olive with
variably wide upward extension toward the eye and a grayish nail *539*;
adult female grayish brown head, neck finely streaked wih black; breast
dusky brown with blackish barring; sides, flanks, back and upper tail
coverts brown with darker brown barring; upper wing coverts same except
for greater secondary coverts which are unbarred and tipped with buff;
underparts unmarked brown; eye brown; bill gray; legs and feet greenish
yellow with darker webs *539*; eclipse male dark colored except for
wings; body blackish brown except for a few white feathers on breast;
light brown crown; usually some white feathers on back *539*; subadult
male gray tertials and wing covets; duller black underparts *539*;
juveniles do not resemble adult female; dull brown with no strong
barring of white markings; male develops white breast during first
winter and resembles male in eclipse plumage *539*; voice male=dovelike
cooing; female=loud hoarse sounding courtship call; no in flight call in
either sex *539* length 580-680 mm *609*; REPRODUCTION: breeding season
April to late June *424*; incubation period: 25-30 days *539*; clutch
size averages 4.3 eggs *538*; lay eggs at rate or 1 egg/day; clutch size
strongly correlated with timing of nesting; early clutches of 5 eggs,
late clutches are much smaller; also a relationship between size and
latitude; birds in mid-latitudes produce largest clutches *539*; from
1-14 eggs but most above 7 eggs represent laying by more than one female
*424*; nest success 13-52% *424*; sexual maturity second winter but some
females don't nest until their third year *539*; males may not breed
until one year after the females *538*; breeding behavior pair bonds
renewed annually during winter or spring; many birds paired on arrival
at breeding grounds; bond may last no more than 1-2 months *538*; pair
forming starts in winter as soon as males gain nuptial plumage; displays
include preening, neck-stretching, cooing movement displays by the male,
lateral head turning, dorsal preening, bathing and wing flapping; female
uses inciting and a call accompanied by strong bill-pointing and
chin-lifting; the more agressive male swims close to female and
intimidates others, if accepted by the female he is effective in keeping
other males away *539,538*; copulatory behavior: female assumes prone
position, male treads and performs a single display (head turning or a
cooing movement), male hold female's nape while mounted; male swims away
performing lateral head-turning; female bathes *539,538*; BEHAVIOR:
territoriality: no effective male defense of nest site; male does not
defend mate on communal loafing grounds used while on breeding grounds;
nest density 3.8-8.7 nests/1000 square feet; territory size: 100-300
square feet; no relationship between nesting densities and nesting
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species eider, common
Species Id M040071
Date 26 AUG 96
success *538*; aggressive displays and physical combat between pairs for
possession of a nest site; female physically attacks other females, male
uses vocalized challenges and bluff charges *424*; periodicity: dawn and
dusk peaks of male display; bursts of activity during day with resting
periods; also tidal periodicity-display frequency higher during periods
of floods and ebb tides and lower during times of high and low tide;
roost during high tides, forage during low tide; diurnal feeding; at
night, move to open ocean many miles from foraging areas *538*;
migration winters from Gulf of St. Lawrence south along the Atlantic
Coast to Virginia; is extending breeding range south along the Maine
coast *424*; breeds off coast of Alaska, Canada, Greenland, and far
north New England *538*; while migrating fly in straight line with
strong wing strokes *538*; seldom fly over land; follow indentations of
the shoreline; in rough weather, follow the trough of the sea *554*;
keep low to water; rest on rocks and sandbars; migrate in groups of
25-100 (up to 400) *2825*; migrate during day, fly especially low over
points of land *424*; migrate April to June, availability of open water
determines progress; first birds to arrive on breeding grounds are
paired; later birds are not-courtship displays start; pairing occurs on
migration as well as on breeding ground *424*; more pairs formed before
midwinter are older birds remating with earlier mates; later pairs
include younger females that did not nest or laid late in the season
*539*; incredible homing-nearly all return to old nest site *424*; birds
gather at sandbars before proceeding north *554*; males are first to
arrive in spring; early flocks include 10-17 birds; later groups include
2-4 birds with sexes equally represented *538*; males and subadults of
both sexes leave first followed by adult females and their offspring;
fall flocks are much larger-mean size=105 birds; largest observed=1100
*538*; in June at least half of males leave breeding grounds in flocks;
general migration November and December *554*; birds move laterally out
to sea or start south from July to late October; sexes fly in separate
flocks *424*; males fly to molting areas; adults inhabit bays while
immatures remain on coast *424*; usually a long migration to molting
areas *539*; take vegetation only accidently; usually filamentous algae
*2825*; forage over mussel beds 2-10 m below the surface; rarely dive
below 16 m, most dives less than 3 m; may dig in muddy shorelines with
feet for small clams or worms *539*; wings partially opened under water,
not used extensively for swimming *554*; dive from a point just beyond
the surf, detach mussels from rocky bottoms; take relatively few species
each meal; forage a lot at low tide *538*; adult eats blue mussels,
barncles, amphipods, starfish, sea urchins, fish, sticklebacks, isopods,
periwinkles, univalves, echinoderms, crustaceans, crabs *539,538,424*;
animals make up 95-99% of diet; molluscs contribute 82%; crustaceans,
amphipods, isopods, and crabs make up 14% *424*; blue mussel is very
important food source *424*; gravel accounts for 14% of stomach volume
*554*; in summer females and juveniles eat amphipods, univalve molluscs,
crowberries *538*; young feed on mosquito larvae and later switch to
invertebrates; prefer periwinkles *538*; ducklings also eat small snails
and shrimp *2825*; in fall and winter: dive well away from shore for
molluscs and crustaceans *539*; only occassionally eat scallops; not
major threat to shellfish industry *554*; bird can strangle when mussel
or clams clamps onto tongue *554*; many use old sites of their own or of
other females; favor sites with rocky overhangs, well drained, become
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species eider, common
Species Id M040071
Date 26 AUG 96
snow free in nesting season, nest in distinct colonies for protection
against predators; will nest in tern colonies *539*; nests on rocky
coasts, shoals, islands, tundra *609*; low Arctic rocky tundra *538*;
prefer low lying rocky coastlines with numerous islands; limited use of
sandy islands and coastal fresh water lakes or rivers; prefer boulder
covered islands over gravel or rock cover, and grassy islands over
shrubby or wooded; nest away from coast in some areas but usually remain
close to marine foods *539*; nests in crevices between rocks *607*;
nests under shrubs, spruce trees, driftwood, in grass and weeds *424*;
nest under alder, laurel bushes, and rushes *554*; most select central
parts of islets rather than shorelines as an adaption to tidal changes
and also the scarcity of fine soil between rocks along the shore to
serve as nest substrate; select rock sheltered areas over flat, open
grassy aeas by a factor of 9 to 1; 40% of nests within 100 feet of
water; 10% more than 900 feet of water; important requirements include
open terrain with extensive water areas, sparsely wooded islands with
barren shores, close proximity to marine foods *538*; cannot nest on
hard packed soil *424*; nest is deep cup in a depression on mossy ground
built of moss, seaweed, lichens, sticks, leaves, grasses matted
together; well lined with down; olive gray eggs are 77 x 51 mm; new nest
constructed the same day the first egg is laid *2825,607,554,424*; birds
use communal loafing areas; males desert females and gather before
molting; males visit nest site only during egg-laying period *539*; if
old nest site is used female churns up old detritus with bill to permit
air to dry out the site; female visits nest to lay only at high tide;
incubates after the third egg *538*; female doesn't feed during
incubation; feeds at twice the rate of drake prior to breeding *2825*;
indeterminate layer; renests more than any other sea duck due to longer
season; late nests contain less down and more contour feathers *424*;
may also nest on sod roofs or in stone or wooden nest sites built for
eiders *424,607*; predation and other loss accounts for 15-25% of all
eggs laid; eiders fail to return to nests rapidly after being flushed;
tendencity to desert nests, larger clutches and greater nesting success
related to age of female and her attachment to clutch; raven, herring
gull, parasitic jaeger, crows, and humans cause greatest egg loss;
arctic foxes, great black-backed gulls and glaucous gulls also destroy
nests *538*; much of loss occurs prior to incubation; loss to gulls
worse when gulls nest before the eiders; predation highest in late June
and early July; nesting near gulls helps defend against predation by
other gulls and bird species *424*; fledgling period: 60-75 days *538*;
young leave nest within 24 hours of hatching; start eating on third day;
mother or one or more non-breeding female leads young to freshwater
ponds on the nest islands before moving on to shallow tidal pools in the
outer islands, broods move to large tidal pools along the mainland coast
where they remain 4-5 weeks before moving among the reefs and islands
farther out to sea *424*; ducklings feed on surface first, learn to dive
quickly *538*; considerable brood merging, dozens of ducklings and
several adult females *539*; females molt on breeding ground before
young can fly *539*; non-breeding habitat strictly marine; well
offshore; generally out of sight of land; habitat selection based on
availability (abundance and water depth) of winter foods *538*; found on
outer ledges jutting into sea *607*; estuaries, sheltered coves, bays
*2825*; POPULATION PARAMETERS: North American population 1.5-2 million
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species eider, common
Species Id M040071
Date 26 AUG 96
*539*; juvenile mortality 0.1-2.5 young survive/pair or
1.3-3.0/escorting female *538*; upward increase in population since
early 20th century; semi-stable populations subject to yearly
fluctuation caused by weather *424*; sex ratios non-breeding: 1 male:.95
female or 51% *424*; hunting mortality about 160 000 per year *424*;
population off Atlantic Coast 500000 *424*; Audubon Christmas counts
(1954-1962) 32640 at 159 stations *538*; LIMITING FACTORS: adverse
weather, disease, predation, parasites *538*; greatest loss during first
week before capable of diving *424*; adult mortality 39% *538*;
mortality due to bad weather during breeding; abnormal freeze-ups in
Arctic ice packs *424*; AQUATIC/TERRESTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS: predators:
raven, herring gull, parasitic jaegar, crows, humans, arctic foxes,
great black-backed gull, and glaucous gull *538*; polar bears, falcons,
sharks, seals *554*; OTHER: from 1750-1960, birds were killed for their
down while molting and unable to fly; eggers, fishermen, and settlers
destroyed birds for eggs and down; birds hunted to near extinction; now
protected by Migratory Bird Treaty and the Maine Audubon Society; birds
conserved, tended, and protected in Iceland and Europe; eggs taken by
Eskimos; skins used for blankets; flesh tastes very fishy *607,554*
REFERENCES FOR LIFE HISTORY- 539, 538, 2825, 607, 582, 554, 609 and 424
Life History - 4 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species eider, common
Species Id M040071
Date 26 AUG 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
REFERENCES FOR BENEFICIAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 607 and 554
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species eider, common
Species Id M040071
Date 26 AUG 96
References
424* Bellrose, R.C. 1978. Ducks, Geese and Swans of North
America. 2nd ed.. Stackpole Books Harrisburg, Penn:540.
538* Johnsgard, P.A. 1975. Waterfowl of North America. Indiana
Univ. Press Bloomington:575.
539* Johnsgard, P.A. 1978. Ducks, Geese, and Swans of the World.
Univ. Nebraska Press Lincoln:404.
554* Kortright, F.H. 1967. The Ducks, Geese, and Swans of North
America. Stackpole Books Harrisburg, Penn:476.
582* Meanley, B. 1982. Waterfowl of the Chesapeake Bay Country.
Tidewater Publ. Centreville, Md:210.
607* Pearson, G.T. (ed.)1936. Birds of America. Garden City
Publ. Co. Garden City, N.Y:260.
609* Peterson, R.T. 1980. Birds of eastern and central North
America. 4th Ed.. Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston, Mass:384.
758* (ed.)1982. Fish and wildlife. 50 CFR 10 (Code of Federal
Regulations). General Serv. Admin. Washington, D.C:7.
1830* Williams, N.A., Bennett, G.F. 1980. Avian haemoproteidae.
13. The haemorproteids of the ducks and geese (Anatidae). Can.
J. Zool. 58(1):88-93.
1880* Burt, D.R.R. 1979. New cestodes of the genus Eurycestus
Clark 1954 from the Avocet Recurvirostra americana Gmelin 1788.
Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 65(1):71-82.
1897* Humphreys, P. 1978. Ducks, geese, swans (Anseriformes).
Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Fowler, M.E. W.B. Saunders Co.
Philidelphia:183-209.
1913* Peters, H.S. 1936. A list of external parasites from birds
of the eastern part of the United States. Bird-Banding 7:9-27.
1942* Wobeser, G.A. 1981. DISEASES OF WILD WATERFOWL.:300.
1952* MacDonald, J.W. 1965. Mortality in wild birds. Bird Study
12:181-195.
1958* Wilson, J.E. 1960. Avian tuberculosis - an account of the
disease in poultry, captive birds, and wild birds. Brit. Vet. J.
116:380-393.
1990* Bennett, G.F. 1972. Blood parasites of come birds from
Labrador. Can. J. Zool. 50:353-356.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species eider, common
Species Id M040071
Date 26 AUG 96
1991* Bennett, G.F., Inger, J.G. 1972. Blood parasites of
gamebirds from insular Newfoundland. Can. J. Zool. 50:705-706.
1994* Gershman, M., Witter, J.F., Spencer, H.E., Jr., Kalvaitis,
A. 1964. Case report: Epizootic of fowl cholera in the common
eider duck. J. Wildl. Manage. 28:587-589.
2019* Korschgen, C.E., Gibbs, H.C., Mendall, H.L. 1978. Avian
cholera in eider ducks in Maine. J. Wildl. Dis. 14:254-258.
2041* Rosen, M.N. 1971. Avian Cholera. Infectious and Parasitic
Diseases of Wild Birds Davis, J.W., Anderson, R.C., Karstad, L.,
Trainer, D.O. The Iowa State University Ames, Iowa:59-74.
2042* Wetzler, T.F. 1971. Pseudotuberculosis. Infectious and
Parasitic Diseases of Wild Birds Davis, J.W., Anderson, R.C.,
Karstad, L., Trainer, D.O. The Iowa State University Ames,
Iowa:75-88.
2043* Gale, N.B. 1971. Tuberculosis. Infectious and Parasitic
Diseases of Wild Birds Davis, J.W., Anderson, R.C., Karstad, L.,
Trainer, D.O. The Iowa State University Ames, Iowa:89-94.
2051* Wehr, E.E. 1971. Nematodes. Infectious and Parasitic
Diseases of Wild Birds Davis, J.W., Anderson, R.C., Karstad, L.,
Trainer, D.O. The Iowa State University Ames, Iowa:185-233.
2061* Todd, K.S., Jr., Hammond, D.M. 1971. Coccidia of
Anseriformes, Galliformes, and Passeriformes. Infectious and
Parasitic Diseases of Wild Birds Davis, J.W., Anderson, R.C.,
Karstad, L., Trainer, D.O. The Iowa State University Ames,
Iowa:234-281.
2825* Soothill, E., Whitehead, P. 1978. WILDLIFE OF THE WORLD.
Blandford Press:297.
References - 2