(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species eagle, bald
Species Id M040093
Date 26 AUG 96

TAXONOMY

NAME - eagle, bald

OTHER COMMON NAMES - bald eagle, american eagle, fish eagle, gray eagle, mottled eagle, sea eagle, Washington's eagle, white-headed eagle, white-tailed eagle and augila calua

ELEMENT CODE - 04/10/84

AOU CODE - 03/05/87
02/17/88
03/24/88

CATEGORY - Birds

PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - Chordata, Vertebrata

CLASS AND SUBCLASS - Aves, Neornithes

ORDER AND SUBORDER - Falconiformes, Falcones

FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - Accipitridae, Buteoninae

GENUS AND SUBGENUS - Haliaeetus,

SPECIES AND SSP - leucocephalis, leucocephalis

SCIENTIFIC NAME - Haliaeetus leucocephalis leucocephalis

AUTHORITY - Linnaeus

TAXONOMY REFERENCES - 706, 434, 404, 575 and 8814

COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Other scientific names include: Haliaeetus Leucocephalus, H. l. alascanus,
H. l. washingtoniensis, H. albicilla, Haliaetos leucocephalis, Vultur
leucocephalus, Aquila leucoephalus, Falco leucocephalus, F. washingtonii, F.
washingtoniensis. Other common names include: bald eagle, american eagle,
fish eagle, gray eagle, mottled eagle, sea eagle, Washington's eagle, white-
headed eagle, white-tailed eagle, augila calua *8814*.

Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species eagle, bald
Species Id M040093
Date 26 AUG 96

STATUS

Coded Status
E: Federal Endangered
Plan approved by Director
Federal Migratory
Nongame-Protected
See Comments
T: Federal Threatened

REFERENCES FOR STATUS - 517, 488, 4285, 758, 828, 8814 and 274

COMMENTS ON STATUS -
This species is protected by the Endangered Species Act of 1973 and the Bald
Eagle Protection Act of 1940 *488*. This species breeds in the Coastal
Plain, and in the Piedmont of Virginia. It is an uncommon permanent resident
in the Coastal Plain. It is a rare and local permanent resident in the
Piedmont. Rare transient and winter visitor in the Mountains and Valleys.
They have recreational non-consumptive and ceremonial/cultural value. The
bald eagle is the National Symbol of the United States. It is an indicator
of certain environmental pollutants and has a high aesthetic value to many
people. They prey on some species that are taken by humans and some domestic
species. They historically and presently have ceremonial and cultural value
to North American Indians who use the feathers, claws, bones and beaks
*8814*. The major reason for the decline of this species was disrupted
reproduction due to the organochlorine pesticides (DDT, dieldrin, endrin).
Currently, the greatest threat is from habitat loss *8814*. The Southeastern
States Bald Eagle Recovery Plan was developed August 3, 1984 *8853*. The
Chesapeake Bay Bald Eagle Recovery Plan was developed May 19, 1982 *8852*.
As of 1989, the Chesapeake and southeastern breeding populations were within
the range for recovery stated in the respective recovery plans, although the
Maine population was still well below the recovery goal. However, because
of shoreline development, urbanization impacts, and human encroachment on
eagle habitat, the future of bald eagles in eastern United States is at best
tenuous. It appears to be premature to down-list the bald eagle in eastern
United States *219*.

Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Distribution
Species eagle, bald
Species Id M040093
Date 26 AUG 96

DISTRIBUTION

References on County Occurrence - 001, 013, 033, 036, 037, 041, 057, 059, 073, 083, 087, 093, 095, 097, 099, 101, 103, 107, 109, 115, 117, 119, 127, 131, 133, 149, 153, 159, 161, 179, 181, 193, 199, 510, 600, 610, 800, 810, 830, 035, 067, 121, 143, 155, 700, 017, 650, 683 and 125

References on Seasonal Occurrence - There have been scattered reports of bald eagles in migration along the
Appalachian Mountains *4285*. It is an uncommon permanent resident in the
Coastal Plain, a rare permanent resident in the Piedmont and a rare
transient and winter visitor in the Mountains and Valleys. Peak counts
occur in the Coastal Plain in the winter *8511*.

References on County Abundance - 037, 041, 109, 117, 810, 001, 013, 033, 036, 057, 059, 073, 083, 087, 093, 095, 097, 099, 101, 103, 107, 115, 119, 127, 131, 133, 149, 153, 159, 179, 181, 193, 199, 510, 600, 610, 800 and 830

REFERENCES FOR HYDROLOGIC UNIT CODES - 001, 017, 033, 036, 057, 059, 073, 083, 087, 093, 095, 097, 099, 101, 103, 119, 127, 131, 133, 149, 153, 159, 179, 181, 193, 199, 800 and 700

OTHER DISTRIBUTION

REFERENCES FOR OTHER DISTRIBUTION - C

Comments on Distribution -
This is an uncommon permanent resident in the Coastal Plain. Rare and
local permanent resident in the Piedmont. Rare transient and winter
visitor in the Mountains and Valleys *8511*.

Distribution - 1 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS

HABITAT - Terrestrial

REFERENCES FOR HABITAT - 4285 and 8814

U_S. FOREST SERVICE FOREST SIZE CLASS
Pole
Mature
Over Mature

REFERENCES FOR FSIZE - 6108, 6283 and 676

REFERENCES FOR SAF TYPE - 5687, 4983, 6108, 6100, 5796, 6283, 676 and 226

LAND USE -
Agricultural Land
Cropland and Pasture
Deciduous Forest Land
Evergreen Forest Land
Water
Streams and Canals
Lakes
Reservoirs
Mixed Forest Land
Nonforested Wetland
Forested Wetland
Forest Land
Wetland
Residential
Rangeland
Herbaceous Rangeland
Shrub and Brush Rangeland
Mixed Rangeland
Bays and Estuaries
Chesapeake Bay
Atlantic Ocean Coastal Waters
Forested Wetland
Nonforested Wetland
Barren Land
Beaches
Mixed Barren Land

REFERENCES FOR LAND USE - 4987, 5882, 4983, 6089, 6136, 6108, 226 and 8812

NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES

NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC

Marine BB.
Marine FL.
Marine RS.
Marine, intertidal BB1
Marine, intertidal BB2
Marine, intertidal FL1
Marine, intertidal FL2
Marine, intertidal FL3
Marine, intertidal FL6
Marine, intertidal RS1
Habitat Associations - 1
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Marine, intertidal RS2
Marine, intertidal RS3
Estuarine OW0
Estuarine AB.
Estuarine BB.
Estuarine EM.
Estuarine FL.
Estuarine FO.
Estuarine RS.
Estuarine SB.
Estuarine SS.
Estuarine, subtidal OW0
Estuarine, intertidal AB.
Estuarine, intertidal BB1
Estuarine, intertidal BB2
Estuarine, intertidal EM1
Estuarine, intertidal EM2
Estuarine, intertidal EM3
Estuarine, intertidal EM4
Estuarine, intertidal FL1
Estuarine, intertidal FL2
Estuarine, intertidal FL3
Estuarine, intertidal FL4
Estuarine, intertidal FO1
Estuarine, intertidal FO3
Estuarine, intertidal FO4
Estuarine, intertidal FO5
Estuarine, intertidal FO6
Estuarine, intertidal FO7
Estuarine, intertidal RS1
Estuarine, intertidal RS2
Estuarine, intertidal RS3
Estuarine, intertidal SB1
Estuarine, intertidal SB2
Estuarine, intertidal SB3
Estuarine, intertidal SS1
Estuarine, intertidal SS3
Estuarine, intertidal SS4
Estuarine, intertidal SS5
Estuarine, intertidal SS6
Estuarine, intertidal SS7
Palustrine AB1
Palustrine AB2
Palustrine AB3
Palustrine AB4
Palustrine AB5
Palustrine EM1
Palustrine EM2
Palustrine EM3
Palustrine EM4
Palustrine EM5
Palustrine EM6
Palustrine FL1
Palustrine FL2
Palustrine FL3
Palustrine FL4
Palustrine FL5
Palustrine FL6
Palustrine FO1
Habitat Associations - 2
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Palustrine FO2
Palustrine FO3
Palustrine FO4
Palustrine FO5
Palustrine FO6
Palustrine FO7
Palustrine ML1
Palustrine ML2
Palustrine OW0
Palustrine RB1
Palustrine RB2
Palustrine SS1
Palustrine SS2
Palustrine SS3
Palustrine SS4
Palustrine SS5
Palustrine SS6
Palustrine SS7
Palustrine UB1
Palustrine UB2
Palustrine UB3
Palustrine UB4
Lacustrine UB.
Lacustrine AB.
Lacustrine BB.
Lacustrine EM.
Lacustrine FL.
Lacustrine OW0
Lacustrine RB.
Lacustrine RS.
Lacustrine UB.
Lacustrine, limnetic AB1
Lacustrine, limnetic AB2
Lacustrine, limnetic AB3
Lacustrine, limnetic AB4
Lacustrine, limnetic AB5
Lacustrine, limnetic OW0
Lacustrine, limnetic RB1
Lacustrine, limnetic RB2
Lacustrine, limnetic UB1
Lacustrine, limnetic UB2
Lacustrine, limnetic UB3
Lacustrine, limnetic UB4
Lacustrine, littoral AB1
Lacustrine, littoral AB2
Lacustrine, littoral AB3
Lacustrine, littoral AB4
Lacustrine, littoral AB5
Lacustrine, littoral BB1
Lacustrine, littoral BB2
Lacustrine, littoral EM2
Lacustrine, littoral EM3
Lacustrine, littoral EM4
Lacustrine, littoral FL1
Lacustrine, littoral FL2
Lacustrine, littoral FL3
Lacustrine, littoral FL4
Lacustrine, littoral FL5
Lacustrine, littoral FL6
Habitat Associations - 3
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Lacustrine, littoral OW0
Lacustrine, littoral RB1
Lacustrine, littoral RB2
Lacustrine, littoral RS1
Lacustrine, littoral RS2
Lacustrine, littoral UB1
Lacustrine, littoral UB2
Lacustrine, littoral UB3
Lacustrine, littoral UB4
Riverine AB.
Riverine BB.
Riverine EM.
Riverine FL.
Riverine OW0
Riverine RB.
Riverine RS.
Riverine SB.
Riverine UB.
Riverine, tidal AB1
Riverine, tidal AB2
Riverine, tidal AB3
Riverine, tidal AB4
Riverine, tidal AB5
Riverine, tidal BB1
Riverine, tidal BB2
Riverine, tidal EM2
Riverine, tidal EM3
Riverine, tidal EM4
Riverine, tidal FL5
Riverine, tidal FL6
Riverine, tidal OW0
Riverine, tidal RB1
Riverine, tidal RB2
Riverine, tidal RS1
Riverine, tidal RS2
Riverine, tidal SB1
Riverine, tidal SB2
Riverine, tidal SB3
Riverine, tidal SB4
Riverine, tidal UB1
Riverine, tidal UB2
Riverine, tidal UB3
Riverine, tidal UB4
Riverine, lower perennial AB1
Riverine, lower perennial AB2
Riverine, lower perennial AB3
Riverine, lower perennial AB4
Riverine, lower perennial AB5
Riverine, lower perennial BB1
Riverine, lower perennial BB2
Riverine, lower perennial EM2
Riverine, lower perennial EM3
Riverine, lower perennial EM4
Riverine, lower perennial FL1
Riverine, lower perennial FL2
Riverine, lower perennial FL3
Riverine, lower perennial FL4
Riverine, lower perennial FL5
Riverine, lower perennial FL6
Habitat Associations - 4
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, lower perennial OW0
Riverine, lower perennial RB1
Riverine, lower perennial RB2
Riverine, lower perennial RS1
Riverine, lower perennial RS2
Riverine, lower perennial SB1
Riverine, lower perennial SB2
Riverine, lower perennial SB3
Riverine, lower perennial SB4
Riverine, lower perennial UB1
Riverine, lower perennial UB2
Riverine, lower perennial UB3
Riverine, lower perennial UB4
Riverine, upper perennial AB1
Riverine, upper perennial AB2
Riverine, upper perennial AB3
Riverine, upper perennial AB4
Riverine, upper perennial AB5
Riverine, upper perennial BB1
Riverine, upper perennial BB2
Riverine, upper perennial FL1
Riverine, upper perennial FL2
Riverine, upper perennial FL3
Riverine, upper perennial FL4
Riverine, upper perennial FL5
Riverine, upper perennial FL6
Riverine, upper perennial OW0
Riverine, upper perennial RB1
Riverine, upper perennial RB2
Riverine, upper perennial RS1
Riverine, upper perennial RS2
Riverine, upper perennial SB1
Riverine, upper perennial SB2
Riverine, upper perennial SB3
Riverine, upper perennial SB4
Riverine, upper perennial UB1
Riverine, upper perennial UB2
Riverine, upper perennial UB3
Riverine, upper perennial UB4
Riverine, intermittent AB1
Riverine, intermittent AB2
Riverine, intermittent AB3
Riverine, intermittent AB4
Riverine, intermittent AB5
Riverine, intermittent BB1
Riverine, intermittent BB2
Riverine, intermittent FL1
Riverine, intermittent FL2
Riverine, intermittent FL3
Riverine, intermittent FL4
Riverine, intermittent FL5
Riverine, intermittent FL6
Riverine, intermittent OW0
Riverine, intermittent RB1
Riverine, intermittent RS1
Riverine, intermittent RS2
Riverine, intermittent SB1
Riverine, intermittent SB2
Riverine, intermittent SB3
Habitat Associations - 5
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Riverine, intermittent SB4
Riverine, intermittent UB1
Riverine, intermittent UB2
Riverine, intermittent UB3
Riverine, intermittent UB4

REFERENCES FOR NWI - 8814

COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
This species prefers coasts, lakes and rivers, and is seen along mountain
ridges in migration *2802*. The James River is one of the more important
eagle habitats in Virginia *4285*. Unusual habitat includes utility
poles, farm ponds, standing snags, rock outcrops, cliffs/ledges, beaver
dams, log jams and waterfalls/cataracts. Bald eagle nest sites are commonly
in close proximity to water, usually within 1/2 mile and rarely more than 2
miles.
They nest in dominant or codominant trees located along ecotones. Pines are
often the preferred nest trees in the eastern United States, but oaks and
other hardwoods are also used in the Chesapeake Bay area. Wintering areas
have many of the same characteristics of the nest sites. Roost sites are
important in wintering areas. Their habitat usually occurs in undeveloped
areas with little human activity *8814*.

ANIMAL/PLANT SPECIES ASSOCIATIONS -
Diseases and Parasites:
Bacterial: Cholera *1951,1955,1956*
Botulism *1932*
Fungal: Aspergillosis *1937,2048*
Helminths: Acanthocephala *1761,1780*
Nematodes *1780*
Trematodes *1780,2022*
Protozoan: Blood parasites *1780,1723,1989*
Coccidia: Sarcocystis *1758*
Trichomoniosis *1678,1726*
Ectoparasites *1913*
Lice *1780*
Poison *1978,1740*
Miscellaneous *1905*

REFERENCES FOR SPECIES ASSOCIATIONS - 1902, 1758, 1951, 1955, 1956, 1932, 1937, 2048, 1761, 1780, 1723, 1989, 1678, 1726, 1913, 1978, 1740, 1905 and 2022

COMMENTS ON SPECIES ASSOCIATIONS -
General references for diseases and parasites include *1902,1758,8852*.

COMMENTS ON HABITAT SUITABILITY MODELS -
Two quantitative models were designed to evaluate nesting habitat for bald
eagles in Maine and offer a quantitative means of determining the potential
of a site as bald eagle nesting habitat in Maine *8808*.

REFERENCES FOR HABITAT SUITABILITY MODELS - 8808

POTENTIAL NATURAL VEGETATION -
065 Northern Cordgrass Prairie (Distichlis-Spartina)
097 Northern Hardwoods (Acer-Betula-Fagus-Tsuga)
101 Oak - Hickory - Pine Forest (Quercus-Carya-Pinus)
103 Southern Floodplain Forest (Quercus-Nyssa-Taxodium)

REFERENCES FOR PNV - 4285, 9292 and 9296
Habitat Associations - 6 ECOREGION -
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Flat Plains
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Irregular Plains
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Irregular Plains, slight rel
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Open Hills

REFERENCES FOR ECOREGION - 4285, 9292 AND 9296

Habitat Associations - 7 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species eagle, bald
Species Id M040093
Date 26 AUG 96

FOOD HABITS

TROPHIC LEVEL -
CARNIVORE
SCAVENGER

REFERENCES FOR TROPHIC LEVEL - 221, 2399, 2799 and 2802

LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Anguilliformes Not Specified
General Siluriformes Not Specified
General Perciformes Not Specified
General Cervidae See Comments
General Anseriformes See Comments
General Anatidae See Comments
General Carrion Not Specified
General See Comments; Food See Comments
General Animals Not Specified
General Aves Not Specified
General Mammalia Not Specified
General Osteichthyes Not Specified
Adult Carrion Not Specified
Adult Clupeiformes Not Specified
Adult Testudines Not Specified
Adult Didelphidae Not Specified
Adult Leporidae Not Specified
Adult Sciuridae Not Specified
Adult Cricetidae Not Specified
Adult Procyonidae Not Specified
Adult Mustelidae Not Specified
Adult Aves Not Specified
Adult Anseriformes Not Specified

REFERENCES FOR GENERAL FOOD - 434, 449 and 488

REFERENCES FOR ADULT FOOD - 4987, 5882, 4983, 6089, 5618, 5688, 434, 449 and 488

COMMENTS ON FOOD -
Eagles are mostly fish eaters, but will prey upon mammals and birds when
necessary. They will eat carrion, especially fish *449*. The diet varies
depending on the geographic area and season *488*. The major prey species of
inland nesting bald eagles are the brown bullhead, chain pickeral, white
sucker, white perch and smallmouth bass. The main prey in marine mainland
habitats are alewife, blueback herring and American eel. The major prey of
bald eagles nesting on coastal islands are common eider, herring gull,
double crested cormorant and black duck. The common goldeneye, bufflehead
and red-breasted merganser were a winter food *8808*.
Bald eagles respond to differences in food abundance with diet shifts.
Canada geese, mallard, and white-tailed deer carrion are primary foods from
November through February. From April through September, bald eagles feed
on a variety of fish species, primarily gizzard shad, channel catfish,
Atlantic menhaden, white perch, American eel, and yellow perch. Many of the
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species eagle, bald
Species Id M040093
Date 26 AUG 96

fish eaten are scavenged. In one study, eagles foraged most intensively
within 1 hour of sunrise. A second smaller peak in foraging activity was
observed in early afternoon *221*.

COMMENTS ON ADULT FOOD -
The main food of the adult is fish, although they will also take waterfowl,
musktrats, cottontail rabbits and five species of turtle *8852*.

Food Habits - 2 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species eagle, bald
Species Id M040093
Date 26 AUG 96

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS

G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae

LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Average DBH of Overstory Trees: Specified in Comments
G Terrestrial Features: Snags
G Snags: Specified in Comments
G Tidal inundation frequency/ duration: specified in comments
FJ Inland Wetlands: Specified in Comments
FJ Terrestrial Features: Specified in Comments
FJ Air Temperature: Specified in Comments
FJ Aquatic/Terrestrial Ecotones: Woodland/water
FJ Aquatic/Terrestrial Ecotones: Specified in Comments
RJ Inland Wetlands: Specified in Comments
RJ Aquatic/Terrestrial Ecotones: Woodland/water
FA Inland Wetlands: Specified in Comments
FA Terrestrial Features: Specified in Comments
FA Air Temperature: Specified in Comments
FA Aquatic/Terrestrial Ecotones: Woodland/water
FA Aquatic/Terrestrial Ecotones: Specified in Comments
RA Aquatic/Terrestrial Ecotones: Woodland/water
BA Aquatic/Terrestrial Ecotones: Woodland/water
BA Vegetations Successional Stage: Climax forest

REFERENCES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 488, 226 and 8808

REFERENCES FOR FEEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 4987, 6899, 5882, 6089, 6136, 6108 and 8852

REFERENCES FOR RESTING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 4987, 5882, 6089, 6108, 6100, 5796 and 8852

REFERENCES FOR BREEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 8852

REFERENCES FOR FEEDING JUVENILE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 4987, 6899, 5882, 6089, 6136 and 6108

REFERENCES FOR RESTING JUVENILE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 4987, 5882, 6089, 6108, 6100 and 5796

COMMENTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS -
The bald eagle uses the overstory canopy for all but foraging. Large
sawtimber trees at least 20 inches DBH, are used for all but foraging.
Snags with a minimum 18 inch DBH are used for all but foraging. They are
found in the area of standing water or flowing water. Of four unhatched
eggs collected in 1984, all were below the pre-DDT standard, however were
not thin enough to cause reproductive failure *4285*.
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species eagle, bald
Species Id M040093
Date 26 AUG 96

Most of the food taken by bald eagles is during low tide when shallow
waters are available *8808*.

COMMENTS ON RESTING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
One communal bald eagle roost was located in a mature deciduous forest
*8852*.

COMMENTS ON FEEDING ADULT ENVIRONTAL ASSOC_ -
Feeding adults are found along river, lake and bay shorelines, perched in
trees bordering them, and in extensive fresh water marshes perched on
hillocks, muskrat houses, bare sand or mud bars and isolated trees *8852*.

COMMENTS ON BREEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
Most nest sites are in the middle of large wooded areas or along the edges
of such areas overlooking marshes or bodies of water or in isolated trees
in marshes, farms, or logged over areas where scattered seed trees remain
*8852*.

Environment Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species eagle, bald
Species Id M040093
Date 26 AUG 96

LIFE HISTORY

Physical description:
In adult plumage, the head, neck, tail, and upper and lower tail coverts are
white. The remainder of the plumage is dark brown. The bill, cere, iris, and
feet are yellow, and the distal 1/2 to 2/3 of the tarus is bare in all
plumages. The juvenile and subadult plumages are mainly brown, including the
head and tail. White or buff mottling is extensive on some individuals,
particularly in the underwing coverts, tail and abdomen. The bill and cere
of the immature are dark brown or gray, the iris is brown and the feet are
yellow. The adult plumage is attained in 4-5 years. In northern populations
the wing is 589 cm on the male and 660 cm on the female. The male tail
measures 310 cm and the female tail 339 cm. The male weighs 4,000 grams and
the female 6,300 grams. In southern populations the male wing is 529 cm and
the female 577 cm. The male tail is 249 cm and the female tail is 271 cm
*8814*.

Reproduction:
This species nests almost exclusively in live trees, although desert
populations will sometimes nest on cliffs or on the ground. The average
height of a nest tree in the Chesapeake Bay region was 27 meters. Nest trees
usually have stout limbs and open canopies which provide a clear flight path
into at least one side of the nest. The nest is usually just below the crown
of the tree. The nest is constructed with large sticks with softer materials
such as dead weeds, cornstalks, grassses and sod as a lining. A slight
depression is formed in the lining about 10 cm deep and 36 cm in diameter.
The depth of the nest usually averages about 100 cm with a width of 150 cm.
The nest is usually shaped like an inverted cone or bowl, and are reused in
subsequent years. Eagles become sexually mature at 4-6 years. The maximum
age for breeding in the wild is not known but captive eagles have layed eggs
for 15 years. They are monogamous and mate for life. If a mate is lost, a
new pair bond is formed. The breeding season varies with latitude. A single
clutch of 1-3 eggs is layed which incubate for from 34-38 days *8814*. Eggs
are seen from February 13 to March 19, and the young are in the nest until
mid-June *676*. They fledge at 9-14 weeks. They may return to the nest to
feed or rest for several weeks *2401,2801*. They will lay a second clutch if
the first is destroyed *8814*.
Nesting eagles generally have several nests within a breeding area *8807*.
They tend to nest close to shore, but will nest further inland if shorelines
are disturbed by humans *8808*. The normal time for nesting in the CBR is
from November through January. Fresh sticks and lining are added to the nest
during the incubation period. The eggs are layed from Mid January to March
and most eggs hatch in April. The density of nesting sites varies and in
large undisturbed forested tracks they have been documented as close as 1.21
km from each other. In areas along rivers where their territories are
distributed linearly, nesting pairs are spaced at about 8.05 km *8852*.

Behavior:
Breeding/nesting periodicity is diurnal and they are active by day only
*4285*. The bald eagle feeds mainly on fish but also takes birds, mammals
and other invertebrates. This species has both inter and intra- specific
territorial behavior on the nesting grounds. The nesting pairs will drive
off adult and subadult eagles before egg laying and during incubation.
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species eagle, bald
Species Id M040093
Date 26 AUG 96

Territorial defense against humans has been observed. Nesting territories
are from 1/2 mile to 1 1/2 miles throughout the range. This species uses
communal roost sites and congregates at foraging areas in the winter and
summer. Intraspecific aggression is common at these foraging areas and they
compete for the best roost sites and food items. In Missouri, home range
sizes varied from 42.2 square km in 1976 to 18.5 square km in 1978 probably
due to greater prey availability. Bald eagles from the northern interior
parts and the southernmost parts of the species range are migratory.
Northern birds move south as open water starts to freeze in autumn. They
travel south until concentrations of food are located. Immatures move
farther south than the adults. Eagles from the southeastern part of the
species range move north at the close of the breeding season from June to
August. The young are atricial and after the first day hatching, immediately
accept food from the parents. The young are brooded by both adults which
ceases at six weeks after hatching. Fledging occurs 9-14 weeks after
hatching *8814*. This species requires a constant food supply, best met
through a diverse prey base *8808*. Most of the food taken by bald eagles is
during low tide when shallow waters are available *8808*. This species will
concentrate in the area of large fish kills such as the vicinity of large
power plants. This species is opportunistic and will utilize both live prey
and carrion. Besides fish, they also take waterfowl, muskrats, cottontail
rabbits and 5 species of turtles. Tree species used for nest sites include
loblolly (most frequent), and Virginia pines, oaks, tulip poplar, beech and
hickory. There are only two instances in the CBR where eagles have nested on
manmade structures, both in the 1950's *8852*.

Origin:
The origin of this species is native *676*.

Limiting factors:
The young and eggs of the bald eagle are preyed upon by both bobcats and
raccoons. Parasites of the bald eagle include 10 genera of helminths (4
trematodes, 1 cestode, 1 acanthocephalan and 4 nematodes) but there was no
evidence that pathogenicity or mortality was attributable to them. Other
parasites include leucocytozoon schinzonts in the heart and ticks were
mentioned. They are also susceptible to diseases such as avian cholera,
streptococcal infection, aspergillosis, pneumonia and septicemia. Storms and
other adverse weather conditions are considered by many to be a threat to
nesting bald eagle populations. The accidents that usually cause mortality
are collisions with power lines and other obstructions, and less frequently
with aircraft. The presence of DDE in eggs can cause eggshell thinning and
is associated with the reduction in mean productivity for this species.
Reproductive success is also influenced by dieldrin and PCB levels. There is
also a potential for lead poisoning where eagles feed on prey that has been
killed or crippled by lead pellets. Habitat modification and the destruction
of nests continue to be limiting factors for eagles in the Chesapeake Bay
Region. Shooting is probably one of the most frequent causes of death for
this species, especially during hunting season *8852*.

Population parameters:
Fledging success in Virginia is as follows: 1977-1984 (# nests/# fledged)
1977 (33/18), 1978 (37/18), 1979 (33/20), 1980 (35/35), 1981 (39/40), 1982
(45/41), 1983 (52/51), 1984 (60/58) *4285*, 1985 (65/84), 1986 (66/83), 1987
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species eagle, bald
Species Id M040093
Date 26 AUG 96

(73/107). This species has a relatively low reproductive potential. Most
bald eagle populations are increasing *8814*.

Aquatic/terrestrial associations:
Eagles will attack osprey that are carrying fish and drive them away if they
are foraging in the eagles area. They also interrelate with the American
crow, common merganser, great black gulls, common ravens and northern
harriers *8814,8852*. It has been suggested that when ospreys outnumber the
eagles in certain breeding situations, that the reproductive success of the
eagle may be reduced. The eagle must sometimes compete for the same nest
with the great horned owl. They must also compete with the osprey and herons
during periods of food shortage *8852*.

LIFE HISTORY CODES -
Foraging Strategy: Hawking
Foraging Strategy: Scavenging
Breeding/Spawning Season: February
Breeding/Spawning Season: March
Mating System (Single breeding season): Monogamy (mal
Duration of Pair Bond: Pair for life
Nest/Den Site: Trees
Nest/Den Site: Ledges
Nest Materials: Grasses
Nest Materials: Sticks
Nest Materials: Organic debris
Gestation/Incubation Period: 1-2 months
Number of Broods/Litters (Reproductive Efforts) Per Ye
Development of Young at Birth/Hatching: Altricial
Parental Care of Young: Both parents
Periodicity: Active in day

COMMENTS ON LIFE HISTORY -
This species requires miles of shoreline along unpolluted water with high
perching and lookout points, and tall, often dead, trees for nests
*2401,2799,676*. They are opportunistic, and harasses ospreys to drop the
prey *2799*. Pesticide intake through contaminated fish is suspected as a
reason for their decline *395*. reproducing at a sustainable level *2801*.
1986 and 1987 seasons brought great increases in fledgling success, so
advances are being made in Virginia populations as of recently.

REFERENCES FOR LIFE HISTORY- 4285, 676, 2801, 434, 700, 449, 395, 8814 and 8808

Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species eagle, bald
Species Id M040093
Date 26 AUG 96

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE

Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Developing/maintaining water holes, ponds, potholes, etc.
Beneficial Maintaining/protecting riparian habitats
Beneficial Maintaining wilderness environment
Beneficial Maintaining overmature forests
Beneficial Prohibiting harvest of species being described
Beneficial Transplanting wild animals
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Maintaining unique or special habitat features [wetlands, caves,
Beneficial Maintaining large trees for denning, nesting, or roosting
Beneficial Establishing buffer zones
Beneficial Timber harvesting - seed tree cuts
Beneficial Other management practices [specified in comments]
Beneficial Maintaining natural vegetation [native]
Beneficial Supplemental feeding [winter, spring, etc.]
Beneficial Developing/maintaining submerged brush, timber, debris, etc.
Beneficial Providing artificial nesting/spawning sites
Beneficial Developing/maintaining greenspace [wildlife corridors]
Beneficial Developing/maintaining stream bank vegetation
Beneficial Developing/maintaining stream structures
Beneficial Stream bank protection - gabion matting or riprap
Beneficial Controlling sedimentation
Beneficial Controlling water levels
Beneficial Controlling wind and water erosion
Adverse Maintaining early stages of ecological succession
Adverse Locating/constructing roads
Adverse Applying pesticides
Adverse Other management practices [specified in comments]
Adverse Locating/constructing powerlines and other rights-of-way
Adverse Timber harvesting - clearcutting
Adverse Construction of navigational improvements [dams, locks, etc.]
Adverse Dredging
Adverse Applying insecticides
Adverse Surface mining

REFERENCES FOR BENEFICIAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 6100, 5796, 5889, 6283, 6107, 459, 2802, 2799, 2800 and 488

REFERENCES FOR ADVERSE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 6283, 6107, 459, 644, 4452, 2802 and 2799

COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
In most of the eastern United States, eagle habitat occurs primarily on
private land. If steps are not taken to protect eagle habitat from
destruction on private lands, eagles may be confined in the future largely
to islands of publicly-owned habitat *219*.
Identification and protection of potential habitat will become increasingly
important as the growing bald eagle and human populations compete for the
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species eagle, bald
Species Id M040093
Date 26 AUG 96

remaining shoreline habitat. Creation of new habitat may be important in
the future to mitigate habitat losses that will undoubtedly occur where
shoreline development potential is great *219*.
Eagle managers must consider the needs of each group (breeding birds
associated with nest sites, reproductively mature birds that are summering
or wintering away from their breeding areas, immature birds, and mature
birds without mates or breeding sites) to ensure maximum survival during the
different bald eagle life history stages *219*. Eagle managers need to
target their management efforts for individual groups of eagles using their
area, with management priorities set for the group of birds in most need of
management action *219*.
Transplanting of eggs and foster nestings has been successful *2799,1902*.
Urban or agrarian development and industrial pollution are adverse to this
species *2799,1902*. There are two recovery plans that apply to Virginia
including The Southeastern States Bald Eagle Recovery Plan and the
Chesapeake Bay Bald Eagle Recovery Plan *8814*.

ROOST MANAGEMENT:
In the northern Chesapeake region, shoreline zone habitat should be managed
for relatively large (>100 ha) forested blocks, with mature (>50-cm dbh)
oaks, beeches or yellow poplars. Roost managers elsewhere should select tree
species that have maximum growth potential for their region and an
open-branching form that allows for eagle access to the tree. Roost sites
need to be relatively close to foraging areas and water (<800m). Corridors
need to be provided into these forested blocks on the leeward side
(southeast-southwest) to provide eagle access to protected roost trees for
winter roosts. Access is also needed to summer roosts, but, given the
potential for thermal stress in summer, corridors exposing the roost to
prevailing summer winds may be optimal. Human development for both winter
and summer sites needs to be excluded within 500 m of the site. Human
activity also should be either excluded altogether or at least limited to
time periods when eagles are not present, generally between 2 hours after
sunrise to 2 hours before sunset. Wind protection plays a critical thermal
energy saving role for wintering eagles *219*.

SHORELINE MANAGEMENT
Managing shoreline habitat may be the single most critical goal for ensuring
the future of Chesapeake eagle populations. The ultimate eagle population
level will be determined by how much habitat is left undeveloped, the eagle
carrying capacity of these habitat islands, and how eagle tolerance of
marginal, human-distrubed habitat changes in the future as eagle--habitat
limitations become more pronounced *219*.
Shoreline habitat needs to be protected to ensure that adequate undisturbed
perching areas are preserved in conjunction with good aquatic foraging
habitat. Nocturnal roosting areas, as well as shoreline adjacent to nest
sites that provide foraging habitat for breeding pairs, need to be
maintained. Comprehensive effort is needed to maintain a forested shoreline
strip wide enough to include the perch and roost sites and provide a visual
barrier from inland human activity and disturbance. Significant avoidance
has been found of all shoreline segments with development within 500 m in
all seasons except for fall. Critical areas laws and shoreline protection
zones created by some states (particularly Maryland and Virginia) do not
provide for a sufficient management zone to protect necessary eagle habitat
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species eagle, bald
Species Id M040093
Date 26 AUG 96

*218*.
For specific management recommendations for the eagle populations of Jordan
Lake and Falls Lake in North Carolina, see reference *220*. Primary
management objectives for this area should be to reduce human activities
within high eagle use areas and to promote the bald eagle as a recreational
benefit rather than a management problem *220*.

MANAGEMENT AFFECTING THE FOOD BASE
Protection of aquatic foraging habitat for bald eagles should focus on areas
of shallow water where fish may be most available. Controlling human
disturbance in foraging areas is most crucial in the morning, however
significant disturbance may occur at any time of day *221*.
Management actions likely to affect the eagle food base include the
reduction of waterfowl hunting seasons and bag limits due to declining
waterfowl populations. Although these actions are designed to increase
waterfowl populations in the long run, immediate impacts on eagle food
abundance are possible, particularly in mild winters when natural mortality
of birds, mammals, and fish is low. Frequent use of waterfowl carrion in
winter also indicates a potential for significant ingestion of lead shot.
Efforts to improve water quality and restore abundant and diverse fish
stocks will affect the fish portion of the eagle's food base. Frequent use
of dead fish by eagles indicates potential for significant impacts from
water-borne contaminants *221*.
Due to their ready acceptance of carrion, supplemental feeding of bald
eagles may be effective in situations of local food scarcity, and has been
used to affect eagle distribution and improve survival rates of immatures.
This food-base management technique is labor intensive, however, and may
result in undesirable dependence of wild birds on feeding stations.
Because eagles are capable of shifting diets to exploit a wide variety of
foods, maintaining an abundant and diverse fauna may be the best means of
ensuring adequate long-term food resources *221*.

POPULATION RECOVERY STATUS
As of 1989, the Chesapeake and southeastern breeding populations were within
the range for recovery stated in the respective recovery plans, although the
Maine population was still well below the recovery goal. However, because
of shoreline development, urbanization impacts, and human encroachment on
eagle habitat, the future of bald eagles in eastern United States is at best
tenuous *219*.

Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species eagle, bald
Species Id M040093
Date 26 AUG 96

References

219 * Buehler, D.A. 1990. Bald Eagle Distribution Abundance,
Roost Use and Response to Human Activity on the Northern
Chesapeake Bay, Maryland. (ed.). VA Tech Department of Fisheries
and Wildlife Ph.D. Dissertation Blacksburg, VA:132.

220 * Smith, T.J. 1988. The Effect of Human Activities on the
Distribution and Abundance of the Jordan Lake - Falls Lake Bald
Eagles. (ed.). VA Tech Department of Wildlife and Fisheries
Master's Thesis Blacksburg, VA:100.

221 * Mersmann, T.J. 1989. Foraging Ecology of Bald Eagles on
the Northern Chesapeake Bay with an Examination of Techniques
Used in the Study of Bald Eagle Food Habits. (ed.). VA Tech
Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Master's Thesis Blacksburg,
VA:132.

226 * LeGrand, H.E. Jr. 1980. Bird Habitat Associations on
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395 * Abbott, J.M. 1967. 22 (ed.):20-25.

404 * Union, American Ornithologists'. 1957. Check-list of North
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434 * Bent, A.C. 1937. Life histories of North American birds of
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449 * Brown, L.H., Amadon, D. 1968. Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of
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459 * Call, M. 1979. Habitat management guides for birds of
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488 * Evans, D.L. 1982. Status reports on twelve raptors. Spec.
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517 * Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife. 1980. Replication of
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575 * Mayr, E. 1969. Principles of Systematic Zoology. (ed.).
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644 * Snow, C. 1973. Southern bald eagle (Haliaeetus
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References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species eagle, bald
Species Id M040093
Date 26 AUG 96

leucocephalus alascanus). Habitat management series for
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654 * Sprunt, A. IV. 1969. Population Trends of the Bald Eagle
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676 * Todd, W.E.C. 1940. Birds of Western Pennsylvania. (ed.).
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700 * Ornithology, Virginia Society of. 1979. Virginia's
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706 * Warren, B.H. 1890. Birds of Pennsylvania. (ed.).
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724 * Wood, M. 1973. Birds of Pennsylvania. (ed.). Penn State
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758 * General Serv. Admin. 1982. Fish and wildlife. 50 CFR 10
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828 * Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife. 1983. Republication of
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1257 * Peterson, R.T. 1980. Birds of eastern and central North America.
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1678 * Rettig, T. 1978. Trichomoniasis in a bald eagle
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1723 * Greiner, E.C., Black, D.J., Iverson, W.O. 1981.
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1726 * Stone, W.B., Nye, P.E. 1981. Trichomoniasis in bald
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1740 * Zinkl, J.G. 1982. Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)
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1758 * Cooper, J.E., Greenwood, A.G. 1980. Recent advances in
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1761 * Nickol, B.B., Kocan, A. 1982. Andracantha megri:
References - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species eagle, bald
Species Id M040093
Date 26 AUG 96

(Acanthocephala: polymorphidae) from American bald eagles,
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1780 * Tuggle, B.N., Schmeling, S.K. 1982. Parasites of the bald
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1902 * Halliwell, W.H. 1978. Raptors (Falconiformes and
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1905 * Coon, N.C., Locke, L.N., Cromartie, E., Reichel, W.L.
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1913 * Peters, H.S. 1936. A list of external parasites from
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1932 * Stuht, J., Fay, L.D. 1979. Botulism in a bald eagle.
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1937 * Coon, N.C., Locke, L.N. 1968. Aspergillosis in a bald
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1951 * Locke, L.N., Newman, J.A., Mulhern, B.M. 1972. Avian
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1955 * Rosen, M.N., Morse, E.E. 1959. An interspecies chain in a
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1956 * Rosen, M.N. 1972. The 1970-1971 avian cholera epornitic's
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1978 * Stickel, L.F. 1966. Bald eagle pesticide relations.
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1989 * Williams, N.A., Bennett, G.F. 1978. Hematozoa of some
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2022 * Smith, H.J. 1978. Cryptocotyle lingua infection in a bald
References - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species eagle, bald
Species Id M040093
Date 26 AUG 96

eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus). J. Wildl. Dis. 14
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2048 * O'Meara, D.C., Witter, J.F. 1971. Aspergillosis.
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2399 * Johnson. 1978. THE STUDY OF RAPTOR POPULATIONS. (ed.).
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2401 * Laycock, G. 1973. Autumn of the Eagle. (ed.). Charles
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2799 * Marshall, D.B., Nickerson, P.R. 1976. The bald eagle
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4452 * Wilson, J.D.. MO Dept. of Conservation (ed.).

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4987 * Brooks, A. 1922. Notes on the abundance and habits of the
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5688 * Herrick, F.H. 1933. Daily life of the American eagle
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5796 * Lish, J.W., Lewis, J.C. 1975. Status and ecology of bald
eagles wintering in Oklahoma. Proc. SE Assoc. Game and Fish
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5882 * Munro, J.A. 1938. The northern bald eagle in British
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5889 * Murphy, F.R. 1965. Nest site selection by the bald eagle
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5942 * Parry, G. 1979. Birds of Prey. (ed.). Simon and Schuster
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Date 26 AUG 96

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6089 * Southern, W.E. 1963. Winter populations, behavior, and
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6100 * Stalmaster, M.V, Newman, J.R. 1979. Perch-site
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6107 * Steenhof, K., Brown, J.M. 1978. Management of wintering
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6108 * Steenhof, K., Berlinger, S.S., Fredrickson, L.H. 1980.
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6136 * Swisher, J.F. 1964. A roosting area of the bald eagle in
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6283 * Steenhof, K. 1976. The ecology of wintering bald eagles
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6344 * Whitfield, D.W. 1974. Bald Eagle Nesting Habitat Density,
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6899 * Herrick, F.H. 1924. The daily life of the American eagle:
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8511 * Ornithology Society of Virginia. 1987. Virginia's
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8808 * Livingston, S.A. 1987. Nesting Habitat Models for Bald
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8814 * U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1988. Endangered Species
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9292 * Bryd, M.A. 1985. Bald Eagle Investigations. Non-game
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9296 * Bryd, M.A. 1989. Personal Communication (transfer of Nest
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References - 5