(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species plover, piping
Species Id M040120
Date 26 AUG 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - plover, piping
OTHER COMMON NAMES -
ELEMENT CODE - 05/11/84
AOU CODE - 09/08/86
03/28/88
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - Chordata, Vertebrata
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - Aves, Neornithes
ORDER AND SUBORDER - Charadriiformes, Charadrii
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - Charadriidae, Charadriinae
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - Charadrius,
SPECIES AND SSP - melodus, melodus
SCIENTIFIC NAME - Charadrius melodus melodus
AUTHORITY - Ord
TAXONOMY REFERENCES - 528, 700, 575, 404, 8811 and 8807
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
This species belongs to the Superorder Neognathae *404*. Other scientific
names once used include Aegialitis meloda, Charadrius hiaticula, and
Charadrius melodus circumcinctus *8811*. This subspecies is found on the
Atlantic Coast and C. m. circumcinctus is found on the Northern Great Plains
although there is some question about the validity of a subspecific status
*8807*.
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species plover, piping
Species Id M040120
Date 26 AUG 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Sensitive
Federal Migratory
See Comments
E: Federal Endangered
Endangered throughout range
Plan approved by Director
T: Federal Threatened
REFERENCES FOR STATUS - 9227, 4447, 671, 8807, 8811 and 274
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
In support of Via's conclusion: according to National Audubon Society's Blue
List, which has listed the piping plover for nine years (1973-1981), the
numbers of this species have been drastically reduced over 60 miles of
barrier islands in Virginia *671*. This species breeds along the coast on
the barrier isles. It is an uncommon transient and summer resident on the
immediate coast and in the lower Cheaspeake Bay. It is a rare transient
inland along the Potomac River and a rare winter resident *8511*. This
species was used for consumptive recreation in the early 20th Century
*8811*. It is Threatened in Virginia and protected by the Lacey Act *8811*.
Recreational and commercial development has caused a reduction in habitat
due to loss of sandy beach areas and other littoral habitat *8811*.
Atlantic coast dune stabilization has also caused some decline in the
species *8811*. There is an estimated 100 pairs of piping plovers on the
Atlantic Coast of Virginia. A 1986 copilation of recent censuses shows an
estimated 790 breeding pairs in the Atlantic Coast population, with 550
pairs in the U.S. and 240 pairs in Canada. This species no longer nests at
the extreme edges of its range. Because the plover does not now nest on many
beaches where it once nested, and still appear suitable, suggests that
disturbance or the direct loss of nests are the most critical contributors
to the population decrease *8807*.
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Distribution
Species plover, piping
Species Id M040120
Date 26 AUG 96
DISTRIBUTION
References on County Occurrence - 001, 115, 131, 650 and 740
References on Seasonal Occurrence - This is an uncommon transient and summer resident on the immediate coast
and in the lower Chesapeake Bay. It is a rare winter resident. Peak
counts are spring--65, Chincoteague, 02 April 1969; fall--60,
Chincoteague, 21 September 1968; winter--15, Cape Charles CBC, 29
December 1973. Mountain and Valley section of western Virginia--1,
Roanoke, 17 August 1978 *700*.
References on County Abundance - 001, 115, 131, 650 and 740
REFERENCES FOR HYDROLOGIC UNIT CODES - 001, 115, 131, 650 and 740
OTHER DISTRIBUTION
REFERENCES FOR OTHER DISTRIBUTION - A
Comments on Distribution -
This is an uncommon transient and summer resident on immediate coast and
in the lower Chesapeake Bay. It is a rare transient in land along the
Potomac River, and a rare winter resident *8511*.
Distribution - 1 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - Terrestrial
REFERENCES FOR HABITAT - 8811
LAND USE -
Water
Bays and Estuaries
Chesapeake Bay
Atlantic Ocean Coastal Waters
Wetland
Nonforested Wetland
Barren Land
Dry Salt Flats
Beaches
Sandy Areas other than Beaches
REFERENCES FOR LAND USE - 541, 432, 624 and 8807
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Estuarine P
Estuarine FL.
Estuarine, intertidal FL.
Riverine BB.
Riverine
Riverine, lower perennial BB.
Lacustrine
Lacustrine BB.
Lacustrine, littoral BB2
Palustrine
Palustrine FL.
Marine
Marine BB.
Marine FL.
Marine, intertidal BB1
Marine, intertidal BB2
Marine, intertidal FL1
Marine, intertidal FL3
Estuarine
Estuarine BB.
Estuarine FL.
Estuarine, intertidal BB1
Estuarine, intertidal BB2
Estuarine, intertidal FL1
Estuarine, intertidal FL2
Estuarine, intertidal FL3
Palustrine FL1
Palustrine FL2
Palustrine FL3
Palustrine UB1
Palustrine UB2
Palustrine UB3
Lacustrine, littoral BB1
Lacustrine, littoral BB2
Lacustrine, littoral FL1
Lacustrine, littoral FL2
Habitat Associations - 1
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Lacustrine, littoral FL3
Lacustrine, littoral UB1
Lacustrine, littoral UB2
Lacustrine, littoral UB3
Riverine, tidal BB1
Riverine, tidal BB2
Riverine, tidal FL1
Riverine, tidal FL2
Riverine, tidal FL3
Riverine, tidal FL4
Riverine, tidal UB1
Riverine, tidal UB2
Riverine, tidal UB3
Riverine, tidal UB4
Riverine, lower perennial BB1
Riverine, lower perennial BB2
Riverine, lower perennial FL1
Riverine, lower perennial FL2
Riverine, lower perennial FL3
Riverine, lower perennial FL4
Riverine, lower perennial UB1
Riverine, lower perennial UB2
Riverine, lower perennial UB3
Riverine, lower perennial UB4
REFERENCES FOR NWI - 676, 432 and 8811
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Barrier islands are the most important piping plover breeding areas in
Virginia and Maryland *218*.
This is an inland aquatic and coastal species *8811*. The piping plovers
nest on the drier parts of sandy beaches, well above high water mark, near
dunes *507,8811*, where the surface is becoming more diversified with
pebbles and broken shells and where beach grass is appearing *432,624*. This
species does not tolerate much vegetation *458*. Additional nesting areas
include sand flats at the ends of sandspits and barrier islands, gently
sloping foredunes, blowout areas behind primary dunes, and washover areas
cut into or between dunes. They may also nest in areas where suitable
dredge spoil has been deposited *8807*. Foraging habitat includes
intertidal beach along the shorelines of isolated dune ponds, tidal flats
on the lagoon side of barrier beaches and tidal mudflats in saltmarshes
behind beaches used for nesting *8807*.
In one study on Assateague Island, plovers foraged on high energy beach,
bayside mud and sand flats, temporary saltwater pools formed by extremely
high tides, and on a drawn down waterfowl impoundment *218*.
ANIMAL/PLANT SPECIES ASSOCIATIONS -
Domestic dogs
Domestic cats
Gulls
Skunks
Foxes
Racoons
Cattle
REFERENCES FOR SPECIES ASSOCIATIONS - 8811
Habitat Associations - 2 COMMENTS ON SPECIES ASSOCIATIONS -
This species is preyed on by domestic dogs and cats, gulls, skunks, foxes
and racoons. The nests are trampled by cattle *8811*.
POTENTIAL NATURAL VEGETATION -
065 Northern Cordgrass Prairie (Distichlis-Spartina)
101 Oak - Hickory - Pine Forest (Quercus-Carya-Pinus)
103 Southern Floodplain Forest (Quercus-Nyssa-Taxodium)
REFERENCES FOR PNV - 700, 4452, 4469, 4401, 4709, 4755 and 6383
ECOREGION -
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Flat Plains
REFERENCES FOR ECOREGION - 700
Habitat Associations - 3 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species plover, piping
Species Id M040120
Date 26 AUG 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
Carnivore
REFERENCES FOR TROPHIC LEVEL - 528, 432 and 8811
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Molluscs Not Specified
General Crustaceans Not Specified
General Insects Not Specified
General See Comments; Food See Comments
Adult Molluscs Not Specified
Adult Crustaceans Not Specified
Adult Insects Not Specified
Adult See Comments; Food See Comments
Adult Coleoptera Not Specified
Adult Diptera Larva stage
REFERENCES FOR GENERAL FOOD - 432 and 8811
REFERENCES FOR ADULT FOOD - 541 and 432
COMMENTS ON FOOD -
Via claims that this species also eat seeds found along the dry sandy
beaches *692*. Bent cites that stomach analysis also revealed beetles, fly
larvae, marine worms and other marine animals and their eggs *432*, spiders,
centipeds, millipeds and snails *8811*.
COMMENTS ON ADULT FOOD -
The adults feed on marine worms, fly larvae, beetles, insects, crustaceans,
mollusks and other small animals of sandy beaches *528,432*.
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species plover, piping
Species Id M040120
Date 26 AUG 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Substrate: Sand
G Water Level: Specified in Comments
G Coastal Features: Sand beaches
G Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Rocky beaches
G Coastal Features: Rocky offshore islands
G Coastal Features: Dunes
FA Coastal Features: Sand beaches
FA Coastal Features: Mudflats
BA Coastal Features: Sand bars
REFERENCES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 432, 692, 624 and 8811
REFERENCES FOR FEEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 8811
REFERENCES FOR BREEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 8811
REFERENCES FOR JUVENILE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - --
COMMENTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS -
The nest sites are on the sandy shore of a lake or ocean, well above the
high water mark *432*. On the coast, the nest site is near the dunes *507*,
and usually characterized as on sand bars *8811*. They use sand flats at
the ends of sandpits and barrier islands, gently sloping foredunes, blowout
areas behind primary dunes and washover areas cut into or between dunes.
They also may nest on areas where suitable dredge spoil has been deposited
*8807*.
COMMENTS ON BREEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
The nest sites are relatively flat with substrates ranging from fine sand
to mixtures of sand, shells, cobble or pebbles. The nests occur most often
at sites with little or no vegetation, but may be found in moderately dense
stands of beachgrass *8807*.
COMMENTS ON LARVAE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
G-00090B
G-00200S
G-00420B
G-00420H
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species plover, piping
Species Id M040120
Date 26 AUG 96
G-00420J
G-00420G
G-00420E
FA-00420B
FA-00420D
BA-00420C
Environment Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species plover, piping
Species Id M040120
Date 26 AUG 96
LIFE HISTORY
Physical description:
This is a belted plover with a body length of 17 cm and a weight of from
46-64 grams. The wing length span is 11.1-12.7 cm, the tarsi range from
2.1-2.4 cm and the culmen length vary from 1.0 to 1.4 cm. The adults have
sand colored upper body parts, white under- sides and orange legs. During
the breeding season, adults aquire single black forehead and breast bands,
and orange bills. The males have brighter bands than the females and inland
birds have more complete bands than the East Coast birds. Post-breeding
birds lose the bands and orange on their bills. Fledgling plumage is similar
to the adult post-breeding plumage. Juveniles acquire adult plumage in the
spring after they hatch *8811*.
Reproduction:
The eggs are layed from the end of April to the beginning of July. Downy
young are evident to the beginning of August *700*. There are usually 4
eggs, and 1 brood per season *432*. Incubation is shared by both sexes and
takes 27-28 days *507*. A second nesting attempt (which is sometimes
necessitated by predation), has smaller clutches (2-3 eggs) *507*. They will
begin full-time incubation with the completion of the clutch *8807*. The
nests are placed on sand, gravel and/or cobbled marine beaches along the
Atlantic coast from Maine to North Carolina. They also nest on off-shore
islands with appropriate habitat. They place the nests at the base of dunes
or close to the vegetative edge. Breeding birds feed on their territories.
For nesting, they prefer wider beaches with more gravel which is evenly
distributed. Vegetation is more scarce and more clumped on nesting
territories.
Territories with more gravel then alkali were more successful. The males
initiate nest scrape digging on unvegetated sand or gravel, away from
vegetation and high on the beach line. Both sexes perform a stone-tossing
behavior whereby nest-scrapes are lined with small pebbles or shell
fragments. The completed nest cups are 2 cm deep and 6 cm in diameter. This
species is monogamous, but they may change mates from year to year *8807*.
The piping plovers return to their breeding grounds in mid-March in
Virginia. They will tend to return to beaches where they have previously
nested and males showed greater nest fidelity than the females. Plovers are
known to breed at age 1 although they may be late nesters. The male
aggressively defends the breeding territory from other males and mammals.
The courtship involves elliptical and figure-8 flights over the nesting
territory. The nests are usually 200 feet or more apart; seldom closer than
100 feet. Incubation averages 27-30+ days. The chicks are precocial and
remain in the nest only until their down is dry. At 11-25 days 90 percent of
the chicks activity is devoted to feeding *8807*.
Behavior:
The nest site is on a sandy beach of a lake or ocean *432*. On the
Virginia coast, the nest site is near the dunes, well above high tide *692*.
Nests of piping plovers are usually located a good distance from each other
usually from *100-200 feet *507*. The nest is a slight hollow in the sand,
sometimes lined or rimmed with pebbles or broken shell. Driftwood and/or
beach grass clumps are often nearby *432,507*. The young are precocial, and
the parents are not involved in feeding them *432*. Foraging takes place on
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species plover, piping
Species Id M040120
Date 26 AUG 96
the beach, from the vegetated areas of the dunes to the shallow waters
*432*. Piping plovers are solitary feeders *432*, although sometimes seen in
small flocks *624*. The fall migration occurs shortly after nesting
activities are completed *432*. This species winters on the south Atlantic
coast from South Carolina to Florida *404*, and they are diurnal, day only
*432*. Breeding site fidelity ranges from 15% in Nova Scotia to 68% in
Manitoba and Minnesota. Natal philopatry ranges from 4.7% return in New York
to 20.2 % return in Minnesota. Those that experience nesting failure will
generally change areas *8811*. They will use a variety of distraction
behaviors including squatting, false brooding, running, and injury feigning.
These are most frequent around the time of hatching. Plovers have been
observed eating marine worms, fly larvae, beetles, crustaceans, mollusks and
other invertebrates. Most feeding occurs during low or falling tides. During
high tides, inclement weather, or as darkness falls, the adults escort the
chicks to cover or to their former nesting territories. They have been
observed feeding in the form of rapid runs with interspersed seemingly
random pecks. Migration patterns are not well understood. Both spring and
fall migrations are thought to follow a narrow strip along the Atlantic
Coast. They migrate north during February, March and early April and south
during late July and August. Most plovers that breed on the Atlantic Coast,
winter from North Carolina to Key West, Florida. They generally show more
intense responces to humans than to potential predetors or non-predatory
species. The average distance an incubating plover left the nest, when
approached was 43 meters, but ranged from more than 85 meters to 5 or 10
meters *8807*.
Origin:
This subspecies is identified as native to Virginia *462,404*.
Limiting factors:
This species is limited by human contact, predators and recreational,
residential and industrial development. It has been found that the chick
surviorship was significantly decreased by higher level of recreational
activity. Most chick loss, in this case, occured between the ages of 10-17
days *8807*.
Population parameters:
This species was hunted heavily in the late 1800's, but the removal of
smaller plovers, including this species, from classification as gamebirds
resulted in the population becoming common again as of 1929 when Bent's Life
Histories were published *432*. As of 1978, this subspecies had not
recovered from this near-elimination caused by hunting. It was cited as a
declining breeding species in Virginia *692*. Habitat change, disturbance of
nesting birds and direct destruction of eggs or young are possible causes of
reduced reproductive success *458*. Using the highest estimates, Cairns and
McLaren 1980 feel that at most 910 pairs (not necessarily breeding) of
piping plovers now nest on the east coast of North America *458*. Males and
females can breed their first spring after hatching. This species may live
12 years or more. 13% of females and 28% of males lived to be 5 years or
older *8811*. There is better hatching success where several pairs nested,
rather than at isolated nests *8807*.
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species plover, piping
Species Id M040120
Date 26 AUG 96
LIFE HISTORY CODES -
Breeding Spawning Season: April
Breeding/Spawning Season: May
Breeding/Spawning Season: June
Breeding/Spawning Season: July
Mating System (Single breeding season): Monogamy (mal
Display Site: Ground
Display Site: Air
Nest/Den Site: Depression
Nest Materials: Sand
Nest Materials: Gravel
Nest Materials: Inorganic debris
Gestation/Incubation Period: 3-4 weeks
Average Number of Offspring/Reproductive Effort: 3-4
Number of Broods/Litters (Reproductive Efforts) Per Ye
Development of Young at Birth/Hatching: Precocial
Periodicity: Active in day
REFERENCES FOR LIFE HISTORY- 432, 462, 692, 404, 624, 507, 458, 8811 and 8807
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species plover, piping
Species Id M040120
Date 26 AUG 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Maintaining wilderness environment
Beneficial Creating impoundments
Beneficial Developing/maintaining mudflats
Beneficial Other management practices [specified in comments]
Beneficial Predator control
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Maintaining early stages of ecological succession
Beneficial Establishing/maintaining nesting and escape cover
Beneficial Developing/maintaining suitable salinity
Beneficial Controlling water levels
Beneficial Providing artificial nesting/spawning sites
Beneficial Controlling undesirable vertebrate species
Beneficial Controlling undesirable plant species
Adverse Channelization
Adverse Construction of navigational improvements [dams, locks, etc.]
Adverse Channel realignment
Adverse Controlling water levels
Adverse Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Existing Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Existing Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Existing Public education - publicity
Existing Installing protective fences
Existing Predator control
Existing Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
REFERENCES FOR BENEFICIAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 528, 432 and 8811
REFERENCES FOR ADVERSE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 528 and 432
REFERENCES FOR EXISTING MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 8811 and 8807
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
It is beneficial to maintain undisturbed resting areas for migrating birds
*528,432*. General protection of the breeding areas is needed, especially on
barrier islands where the development is a more remote possibility *692*.
In areas where plovers feed primarily on the high energy beach, it may be
necessary to close the beach to recreational use even if nest sites can be
adequately protected *218*.
Industrial pollution, intensive recreational development *528,432*, and off-
road vehicles are adverse to this species *8811*. It is recommended that
scientific studies be undertaken to facilitate and enhance recovery efforts.
In Virginia, the Fish and Wildlife service should acquire unprotected
portions of land in the barrier island chain including Cedar Island and
portions of Assawoman and Metomkin Islands. See reference *8807* for a
detailed narrative of the Recovery Plan.
One study found that nest predation was the leading cause
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species plover, piping
Species Id M040120
Date 26 AUG 96
of nest loss, and that red foxes and raccoons were the primary predators.
The researcher felt that efforts to improve productivity should focus on
reducing nest predation *218*. Recommendations were: since one or two
predators may be responsible for the predation in a single nesting area, and
since foxes and raccoons may readily disperse into vacant habitat, unfocused
trapping will probably not be effective. If trapping is used, efforts
should be concentrated on specific individuals immediately prior to the
breeding season. During the breeding season, nesting areas should be
monitored for predators and trapping should be continued as often as needed
to keep the nesting area predator free *218*.
Electric fences have been used to reduce fox activity in some shorebird
nesting areas *218*. Predator exclosures constructed around individual
nests are another alternative.
Raccoons appear to be the major predators of piping plover nests on Cape
Lookout National Seashore . Predator exclosures constructed around
individual nests have proven effective in reducing fox predation in some
areas. Efforts should be made to remove all feral cats from the the Core
Banks of the Cape Lookout National Seashore. If trapping is considered, the
optimal time period may be during winter when food sources may be scarce.
Since feral cats and raccoons were introduced to the National Seashore by
man, trapping and removal or eradication will not depart from Park
philosophy on protecting the Park's natural resources *216*.
To control human activity at nesting and brood foraging sites, symbolic
fencing can be erected prior to mid-April before nest initiation. In some
areas, complete closing of access to the beach to visitors from mid-April to
Mid-August is recommended *216*.
Corridors can be established from mid-April to mid-August to prevent the
likelihood of vehicles destroying plover nests or crushing chicks *216*.
Camping should be prohibited in nesting locations to prevent pitching camp
near plover nests. If camping is continued on the Cape Lookout National
Seashore islands, perhaps it should be restricted to permanent designated
camp sites *216*.
Law enforcement patrols need to be increased during the breeding season at
some nesting locations. Law enforcement issues which need to be addressed
are pet leash laws, visitors entering posted bird colonies and ORV's
driving in nondesignated areas, especially at plover nesting and foraging
locations *216*.
Day-old to week-old chicks have a tendency to lie still in a depression or
rut when approached by a predator. Chicks exhibit this behavior when
approached by a human or vehicle. Degradation of foraging habitat may occur
while foraging area is being reduced by vehicles compacting the sand *216*.
Since artificial beach stabilization reduces overwash, forms narrower,
steeper beaches, and promotes vegetation growth, it is possible that these
efforts degrade plover breeding habitat by decreasing the availability and
accessibility of important foraging habitats *218*.
Some studies have found that symbolic fencing is not an adequate method of
restricting human presence in nesting areas. Pedestrians, vehicles and
unleashed dogs entered closed areas. The exclusion of park visitors and
their pets in nesting areas should be strictly enforced. An increased
presence of park officials would likely be a deterrent to those who consider
ignoring park regulations. If the current level of staffing is
insufficient, hiring new personnel, perhaps specifically for natural
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species plover, piping
Species Id M040120
Date 26 AUG 96
resource protection and education, may be necessary. Volunteers are an
excellent source of manpower. For example, local bird clubs can be trained
to document bird use areas, post them, protect them from distrubance and
educate visitors as to why regulations protecting wildlife areas are
important *217*.
Once nesting areas have been identified, they should be protected from human
disturbance during territory establishement rather than after nests are
initiated, so the recreationists do not limit the area available for nesting
*217*.
Management Practices - 3 (DRAFT) - References
Species plover, piping
Species Id M040120
Date 26 AUG 96
References
216 * McConnaughey, J.L., Fraser, J.D., Coutu, S.D., Loegering,
J.P. 1990. Piping Plover Distribution and Reproductive Success
on Cape Lookout National Seashore. (ed.). VA Tech Fisheries and
Wildlife Department Blacksburg, VA:67.
217 * Coutu, S.D. 1990. Piping Plover Distribution and
Reproductive Success on Cape Hatteras National Seashore. (ed.).
VA Tech Fisheries and Wildlife Department Blacksburg, VA:67.
218 * Patterson, M.E. 1988. Piping Plover Breeding Biology and
Reproductive Success on Assateague Island. (ed.). VA Tech
Master's Thesis, Fisheries and Wildlife Department Blacksburg,
VA:131.
404 * Union, American Ornithologists'. 1957. Check-list of North
American Birds. (ed.). American Ornithologists' Union Baltimore,
Md:691.
432 * Bent, A.C. 1929. Life histories of North American shore
birds. Bull. 146 (ed.). U.S. Natl. Mus. Washington, D.C:412.
458 * Cairns, W.E. 1980. Status of the piping plover on the east
coast of North America: A summary of our recent knowledge of
this blue-listed species. Am. Birds 34 (ed.):206-208.
462 * Assoc, Checklist Comm. Am. Birding. 1975. American Birding
Association checklist: Birds of continental United States and
Canada. (ed.):64.
507 * Harrison, H.H. 1975. A Field Guide to Birds' Nests of 285
Species Found Breeding in the United States East of the
Mississippi River. Peterson Field Guide Series No. 121 (ed.).
Houghton Mifflin Boston, Massachusetts:257.
528 * Imhof, T.A. 1976. Alabama Birds, 2nd Ed. (ed.). Univ.
Alabama Press:445.
541 * Johnsgard, P.A. 1981. The Plovers, Sandpipers, and Snipes
of the World. (ed.). Univ. Nebraska Press Lincoln:493.
575 * Mayr, E. 1969. Principles of Systematic Zoology. (ed.).
McGraw-Hill New York, N.Y:428.
624 * Robbins, C.S. 1966. Birds of North America: A Guide to
Field Identification. (ed.). Golden Press New York, N.Y:340.
671 * Tate, J., Jr. 1981. The Blue List for 1981: the first
decade. Am. Birds 35 (ed.):3-10.
676 * Todd, W.E.C. 1940. Birds of Western Pennsylvania. (ed.).
Univ. Pittsburgh Press Pittsburgh, Penn:710.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species plover, piping
Species Id M040120
Date 26 AUG 96
692 * Via, J.W. 1979. Piping plover. Proc. Symp. on Endangered
and Threatened Plants and Animals of Virginia Linzey, D.W.
(ed.). Ext. Div., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ.
Blacksburg, Va:431-432.
700 * Ornithology, Virginia Society of. 1979. Virginia's
Birdlife: An Annotated Check-list. Virginia Avifauna No. 2
(ed.). Virginia Society of Ornithology Lynchburg, Va:118.
706 * Warren, B.H. 1890. Birds of Pennsylvania. (ed.).
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania Penn:434.
725 * Wood, M. 1979. Birds of Pennsylvania. (ed.). Penn State
University University Park, Pennsylvania:133.
733 * Commission, Pennsylvania Game. 1977. The Commonwealth of
Pennsylvania Game Laws. (ed.). Penn. Game Comm. Harrisburg,
Penn:137.
1257 * Peterson, R.T. 1980. Birds of eastern and central North America.
4th Ed.. Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston, Mass:384.
4401 * Anderson, D. 1976. Spring survey. Bluebird 43(1)
(ed.):17-22.
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