(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species gull, laughing
Species Id M040173
Date 26 AUG 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - gull, laughing
OTHER COMMON NAMES -
ELEMENT CODE - 03/14/84
AOU CODE - 10/23/85
03/29/88
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - Chordata,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - Aves,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - Charadriiformes,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - Laridae,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - Larus,
SPECIES AND SSP - atricilla,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - Larus atricilla
AUTHORITY - Linnaeus
TAXONOMY REFERENCES - 462 and 528
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species gull, laughing
Species Id M040173
Date 26 AUG 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Federal Migratory
Nongame-Protected
See Comments
REFERENCES FOR STATUS - 451, 486, 772 and 758
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
Nationally, numbers decreasing due to destruction of habitat
*451*; previously hunted for feathers *772*; in Virginia, population
seems healthy and stable *486* Abundant transient and summer resident
near the coast and Bay; uncommon winter visitor. Rare spring transient
elsewhere. Peak counts occur along the coast during fall.*8511*
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Distribution
Species gull, laughing
Species Id M040173
Date 26 AUG 96
DISTRIBUTION
References on County Occurrence - 001, 075, 087, 041, 193, 159, 133, 103, 119, 115, 073, 199, 036, 095, 181, 093, 131, 650, 700, 800, 550, 810, 740 and 710
References on Seasonal Occurrence - Abundant transient and summer resident near the coast, uncommon winter visitor.
Rare spring transient elsewhere.*8511* Peak counts occur along the coast
in fall.
REFERENCES FOR HYDROLOGIC UNIT CODES - 001, 075, 087, 041, 193, 159, 133, 103, 119, 115, 073, 199, 036, 095, 181, 093, 131, 650, 700, 800, 550, 810, 740 and 710
Comments on Distribution -
Abundant transient and summer resident near the coast and Bay; uncommon winter
visitor. Rare spring transient elsewhere.*8511*
Distribution - 1 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
LAND USE -
Urban or Built-up Land
Commercial and Services
Water
Bays and Estuaries
Chesapeake Bay
Atlantic Ocean Coastal Waters
Barren Land
Beaches
Sandy Areas other than Beaches
Bare Exposed Rock
REFERENCES FOR LAND USE - 528, 451 and 429
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Occurs around harbors, fishing operations, bays, beaches
and estuaries *528*
HABITAT SUITABILITY MODELS -
V1 Area of island; Classes: 1) < 0.5 ha 2) 0.5 - 2.0 ha 3) 2 - 50 ha
4) 50 - 100 ha 5) 100 - 200 ha 6) > 200 ha; optimum = class 3; V2 Maximum
ground elevation; minimum 0 m; maximum 5.0 m; optimum 1 -2 m; V3 Mean slope
of island surface; minimum 0%; maximum 6%; optimum 0 - 3%; V4 Percentage
herbaceous canopy cover 0.1 - 1.0 m tall; minimum 0%; maximum 100%; optimum
50 - 100%; V5 Percentage woody canopy cover < 1.0 m tall; minimum 0%;
maximum 30%; optimum 5 - 10%; V6 Percentage woody canopy cover > 1.0 m tall;
minimum 0%; maximum 20%; optimum 0 - 5%; V7 Straight-line distance (km) over
water > 1m deep to mainland, or longest interisland distance in a chain of
islands between the target island and the mainland; minimum 0 km; maximum
2.5 km; optimum 2.0 - 2.5 m; V8 Shortest distance by water to nearest boat
access point; minimum 0 km; maximum 20 - 25 km; optimum >= 19 km *CPC4*;
COMMENTS ON HABITAT SUITABILITY MODELS -
The model applies only to laughing gull nesting habitat along the Gulf
Coast; also it assumes that candidate habitats are coastal islands not
connected with the mainland at low tide. Assumptions of the variables: V1
Small islands ( < 0.5 ha or < 1 acre) are likely to have a large portion of
their surface inundated by storm tides, large islands ( > 100 ha or > 250
acres) are more likely to be occupied by terrestrial predators; V2 Islands 1
-2 m ( 3.3 - 6.6 ft) in elevation are relatively invulnerable to inundation
along the Gulf Coast during the nesting season, yet promote growth of
desirable vegetation; V3 Flat or gently sloping terrain is most suitable for
nesting laughing gulls; V4 Sites dominated by herbaceous vegetation ( > 50%
coverage) are preferred for nesting, laughing gulls will not nest in open
areas devoid of herbaceous vegetation; V5 Low densities ( 5 - 10%) of short
bushes increase visual isolation and therefore increase nest densities, High
densities ( > 25%) are indicative of successional stages unsuitable for
nesting laughing gulls; V6 Sites dominated by tall ( > 1.0 m or > 3.3 ft)
bushes or trees are not used by nesting laughing gulls; V7 Accessibility of
an island to terrestrial predators decreases with distance from sources of
predators; V8 Probability of human disturbance varies as a function of
distance from access points.
REFERENCES FOR PNV - 700 and 486
REFERENCES FOR ECOREGION - 700 AND 486
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species gull, laughing
Species Id M040173
Date 26 AUG 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
Carnivore
REFERENCES FOR TROPHIC LEVEL - 528, 772 and 429
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Animals Not Specified
General Annelids Not Specified
General Crustaceans Not Specified
General Malacostraca Not Specified
General Insects Not Specified
General Orthoptera Not Specified
General Hemiptera Not Specified
General Coleoptera Not Specified
General Hymenoptera Not Specified
General Osteichthyes Not Specified
General Siluriformes Not Specified
General See Comments; Food See Comments
Important Animals Not Specified
Important Annelids Not Specified
Important Crustaceans Not Specified
Important Insects Not Specified
Important Osteichthyes Not Specified
Important See Comments; Food See Comments
Juvenile See Comments; Food See Comments
Adult Animals Not Specified
Adult Annelids See Comments
Adult Crustaceans Not Specified
Adult Insects Not Specified
Adult Osteichthyes Not Specified
Adult See Comments; Food See Comments
General Rallidae Juvenile stage
General Passeriformes Not Specified
General Laridae Egg/Fetus stage
General Carrion Not Specified
REFERENCES FOR GENERAL FOOD - 528, 772 and 429
REFERENCES FOR IMPORTANT FOOD - 528, 772 and 429
REFERENCES FOR ADULT FOOD - 528, 772 and 429
REFERENCES FOR JUVENILE FOOD - 429
COMMENTS ON FOOD -
Favorites include small fish, fry, and large insects
*528,429*; Has been known to eat shrimp feed and garbage;
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species gull, laughing
Species Id M040173
Date 26 AUG 96
COMMENTS ON ADULT FOOD -
Favorites include small fish, fry, and large insects
*528,429*
COMMENTS ON JUVENILE FOOD -
Fed half-digested soft food taken from parents' open bill
*429*
Food Habits - 2 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species gull, laughing
Species Id M040173
Date 26 AUG 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Mud or silt
G Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Sand
G Vegetations Successional Stage: Sand dune
G Vegetations Successional Stage: Bare rock
G Terrestrial Features: Cliffs/ledges
G Terrestrial Features: Rock outcrops
G Terrestrial Features: Bare ground
G Density of Aquatic Vegetation: Moderate
G Coastal Features: Reefs
G Coastal Features: Rocky beaches
G Aquatic Habitat Zonation: Shallows with emergent vegetation [littoral zone]
G Aquatic Habitat Zonation: Open water [pelagic zone]
G Human Association: Public city parks
G Human Association: Public residential parks
G Human Association: State and county parks
G Human Association: National parks/historic landmarks
G Human Association: Wildlife refuges/sanctuaries
BA Inland Wetlands: Inland saline marshes
BA Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Mud or silt
BA Elevation: 0-100 ft.
BA Elevation: Specified in Comments
BA Slope: Specified in Comments
BA Percent Herbaceous Ground Cover: Specified in Comments
BA Percent Forb Ground Cover: Specified in Comments
BA Percent Grass Ground Cover: Specified in Comments
BA Shrubs: Other species [list in comments]
BA Herbs: Other species [list in comments]
BA Human Association: Specified in Comments
LIM Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Mud or silt
LIM Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Sand
LIM Vegetations Successional Stage: Sand dune
LIM Vegetations Successional Stage: Bare rock
LIM Terrestrial Features: Cliffs/ledges
LIM Terrestrial Features: Rock outcrops
LIM Terrestrial Features: Bare ground
LIM Density of Aquatic Vegetation: Moderate
LIM Coastal Features: Reefs
LIM Coastal Features: Rocky beaches
LIM Aquatic Habitat Zonation: Shallows with emergent vegetation [littoral zone]
LIM Aquatic Habitat Zonation: Open water [pelagic zone]
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species gull, laughing
Species Id M040173
Date 26 AUG 96
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
LIM Human Association: Public city parks
LIM Human Association: Public residential parks
LIM Human Association: State and county parks
LIM Human Association: National parks/historic landmarks
LIM Human Association: Wildlife refuges/sanctuaries
LIM Inland Wetlands: Inland saline marshes
LIM Elevation: 0-100 ft.
LIM Elevation: Specified in Comments
LIM Slope: Specified in Comments
LIM Percent Herbaceous Ground Cover: Specified in Comments
LIM Percent Forb Ground Cover: Specified in Comments
LIM Percent Grass Ground Cover: Specified in Comments
LIM Shrubs: Other species [list in comments]
LIM Herbs: Other species [list in comments]
LIM Human Association: Specified in Comments
REFERENCES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 700, 528, 486 and 429
REFERENCES FOR BREEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 429
COMMENTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS -
Known to hover around docks and commercial fishing
operations *528*
COMMENTS ON BREEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
Breed in salt marshes with flat, muddy terrain, short salt meadow grass,
1-2 ft. above high tide *429* Prefer to breed on islands which are 1 - 2 m
above high tide, have a slope less than 3%, and where herbaceous cover is
>= 50%; Shrub species in nesting habitat include backbrush (Baccharis
halimifolia) and sea-oxeye (Barrichia frutescens); Herb and grass species
in nesting habitat include: oyster grass (Spartina alterniflora), marsh hay
cordgrass (S. patens), salt jointgrass (Paspalum vaginatum), yankee weed
(Eupatorium capillifolium), and saltwort (Batis maritima); Human
disturbance on islands where colonies of laughing gulls are nesting can
result in poor nesting success;
Environment Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species gull, laughing
Species Id M040173
Date 26 AUG 96
LIFE HISTORY
ORIGIN: native *429*; PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: small (15-17
in.), white with black head, dark gray back and wings, wing tip is
black, hind edge of wing is white, feet are dark, bill is bright red and
an incomplete white ring circles each; in summer adult has a black hood
*528,451*; DISTRIBUTION: Nest on coastal islands from southern Nova Scotia
to Florida and West from Florida to southern Texas, also they nest along
the Carribean coast in Central America, in the West Indies, and along
the northern coast of South America; Laughing gulls winter from North
Carolina south along the Atlantic, gulf, and Carribean Coasts to the
Amazon delta in Brazil;
REPRODUCTION: breeding season in Virginia late April to early
August *700*; eggs: 2-5, usually 3, ovate, 53.5 x 38.5 mm average, wood
brown to olive buff marked with brown, reddish-brown, black, and
lavender, laid 25 May to 26 June *528*; incubation period=20 days
average *429*; usually single-brooded *429*; In FL young fledged from 35 - 50
days;
BEHAVIOR:
periodicity=basically dirunal *772*; migration: arrive in Virginia about
April 1, leave for winter in mid-Oct. *429*; foraging: fisher, rarely
immerses, known to steal from brown pelican *528,772*; breeds in flat,
muddy marshes 1-2 ft. above high tide, covered with short salt meadow
grass *429*; nesting: in colonies on sandy islands or marshes, ground
nest lined with grass and weed stems or few inches above ground in clump
of grass, usually in plain sight *528,451,429*; development of young:
first fed half-digested soft food taken from open bill of parent, stay
in nest first few days, run about soon after, inactive, sleep heavily;
parental care: carefully brooded, feed chicks and care for them until
able to fly or soon after (1 month to 6 weeks) *429*;
LIMITING FACTORS:
numbers may be reduced by destruction of marshes *451*; numbers were
reduced earlier in century by feather hunters *772*; POPULATION
PARAMETERS: Erwin reports high numbers in 1977 count *486*;
AQUATIC/TERRESTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS: occurs around harbors, bays, beaches
*528*; rare inland, salt marshes, bays, estuaries *451*; occasionally
flocks with herring gull (Larus argentatus) *528*; L. argentatus known
to prey on eggs and young *451*; Larus argentatus *528*; Pelecanus
occidentalis *528,429*; Sometimes flocks with herring gull *528*;
sometimes waits for brown pelican to surfaace from dive, lights on its
head and steals from its pouch *528,429*; OTHER: agile flyer *451*
REFERENCES FOR LIFE HISTORY- 700, 528, 451, 486, 772 and 429
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species gull, laughing
Species Id M040173
Date 26 AUG 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Maintaining early stages of ecological succession
Beneficial Maintaining natural ecological succession
Beneficial Maintaining natural vegetation [native]
Beneficial Maintaining wilderness environment
Beneficial Maintaining/protecting riparian habitats
Beneficial Developing/maintaining saline marsh
Beneficial Developing/maintaining mudflats
Beneficial Developing/maintaining/protecting wetlands
Beneficial Constructing/maintaining piers
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Adverse Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Adverse Dredging
Adverse Deposition of fill
Adverse Applying pesticides
Adverse Applying insecticides
REFERENCES FOR BENEFICIAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 528, 486 and 429
REFERENCES FOR ADVERSE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 528, 486 and 429
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species gull, laughing
Species Id M040173
Date 26 AUG 96
References
429* Blood, F.B., Riddick, M.B. 1973. Unionidae of the Pamunkey
River system, Virginia. Nautilus 88:65.
451* Bull, J., Farrand, J., Jr. 1977. The Audubon Society Field
Guide to North American Birds-Eastern Region. Alfred A. Knopf
Inc. New York:784.
462* Assoc, Checklist Comm. Am. Birding. 1975. American Birding
Association checklist: Birds of continental United States and
Canada.:64.
486* Erwin, R.M. 1979. Coastal waterbird colonies: Cape
Elizabeth, Maine to Virginia. FWS/OBS-79/10. Biol. Serv. Pgm.,
U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. Washington, D.C:212.
528* Imhof, T.A. 1976. Alabama Birds, 2nd Ed.. Univ. Alabama
Press:445.
700* Ornithology, Virginia Society of. 1979. Virginia's
Birdlife: An Annotated Check-list. Virginia Avifauna No. 2.
Virginia Society of Ornithology Lynchburg, Va:118.
758* (ed.)1982. Fish and wildlife. 50 CFR 10 (Code of Federal
Regulations). General Serv. Admin. Washington, D.C:7.
772* Wetmore, A. 1965. Water, Prey and Game Birds of North
America. Natl. Geogr. Soc. Washington, D.C.
References - 1