(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species skimmer, black
Species Id M040192
Date 26 AUG 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - skimmer, black
OTHER COMMON NAMES -
ELEMENT CODE - 02/04/85
AOU CODE - 04/25/85
03/31/88
CATEGORY - Birds
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - Chordata, Vertebrata
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - Aves, Neornithes
ORDER AND SUBORDER - Charadriiformes,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - Rynchopidae,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - Rynchops,
SPECIES AND SSP - niger,
SCIENTIFIC NAME - Rynchops niger
AUTHORITY - Linnaeus
TAXONOMY REFERENCES - 3624 and 1024
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species skimmer, black
Species Id M040192
Date 26 AUG 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Federal Migratory
Nongame-Protected
State endangered
Pending, FMP is currently in preparation
REFERENCES FOR STATUS - 3611 and 758
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
Breeds commonly on the Eastern Shore, rare breeder in the Bay. Common
transient and summer resident along the coast and in lower Bay, uncommon
to rare farther inland, rare winter visitor near coast.*8511*
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Distribution
Species skimmer, black
Species Id M040192
Date 26 AUG 96
DISTRIBUTION
References on County Occurrence - AO1, CB1, CB2, CB3, 001, 073, 093, 095, 109, 115, 131, 181, 199, 550, 650, 700, 710, 740, 800, 810, 830 and 999
References on Seasonal Occurrence - Occurs on coast and Chesapeake Bay; one record in Louisa
Co. *700* Common transient and summer resident along the coast, uncommon
to rare farther inland. Rare winter visitor near coast.*8511* Peak counts
occur on the barrier is. in June.*8511*
References on County Abundance - AO1, CB1, CB2, CB3, 001, 073, 093, 095, 109, 115, 131, 181, 199, 550, 650, 700, 710, 740, 800, 810, 830 and 999
REFERENCES FOR HYDROLOGIC UNIT CODES - 001, 131, 115, 199, 650, 700, 710 and 810
OTHER DISTRIBUTION
REFERENCES FOR OTHER DISTRIBUTION - H
Comments on Distribution -
Common transient and summer resident along coast and in lower Bay, uncommon to
rare farther inland, rare winter visitor near coast.*8511*
Distribution - 1 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - Riparian
REFERENCES FOR HABITAT - 3624
LAND USE -
Water
Streams and Canals
Bays and Estuaries
Wetland
Nonforested Wetland
Barren Land
Beaches
Sandy Areas other than Beaches
Chesapeake Bay
REFERENCES FOR LAND USE - 3628, 487, 3631, 486 and 3624
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Marine, intertidal BB1 S
Marine, intertidal BB2
Estuarine, subtidal OW0
Marine, subtidal OW0
Estuarine, intertidal FL2
Estuarine, intertidal BB1
Estuarine, intertidal BB2
REFERENCES FOR NWI - 3628, 487, 3631, 486 and 3624
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Nests on sandy beaches, spoil banks; feeds in mudflats,
tidal streams, and marsh edges *3628*
POTENTIAL NATURAL VEGETATION -
065 Northern Cordgrass Prairie (Distichlis-Spartina)
101 Oak - Hickory - Pine Forest (Quercus-Carya-Pinus)
103 Southern Floodplain Forest (Quercus-Nyssa-Taxodium)
REFERENCES FOR PNV - 700
ECOREGION -
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Flat Plains
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Irregular Plains
REFERENCES FOR ECOREGION - 700
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species skimmer, black
Species Id M040192
Date 26 AUG 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
Carnivore
REFERENCES FOR TROPHIC LEVEL - 3624
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Animals Not Specified
General Malacostraca Adult stage
General Osteichthyes Not Specified
General Cypriniformes Not Specified
General Atheriniformes Not Specified
General Perciformes Not Specified
General Animals Adult stage
General Crustaceans Adult stage
General See Comments; Food See Comments
Important Atheriniformes Not Specified
Important Animals Not Specified
Important Osteichthyes Not Specified
Juvenile Animals Not Specified
Juvenile Animals Adult stage
Juvenile Crustaceans Adult stage
Juvenile Malacostraca Adult stage
Juvenile Osteichthyes Not Specified
Juvenile Cypriniformes Not Specified
Juvenile Atheriniformes Not Specified
Juvenile Perciformes Not Specified
Juvenile See Comments; Food See Comments
Adult Animals Not Specified
Adult Animals Adult stage
Adult Crustaceans Adult stage
Adult Malacostraca Adult stage
Adult Osteichthyes Not Specified
Adult Cypriniformes Not Specified
Adult Perciformes Not Specified
Adult See Comments; Food See Comments
Adult Atheriniformes Not Specified
REFERENCES FOR GENERAL FOOD - 3628, 487 and 3624
REFERENCES FOR IMPORTANT FOOD - 3628 and 487
REFERENCES FOR ADULT FOOD - 3628, 487 and 3624
REFERENCES FOR JUVENILE FOOD - 3628, 487 and 3624
COMMENTS ON FOOD -
In Virginia diet nearly 100% fish of which over 90% were
silversides (Menidia spp.) and killifishes (Fundulus spp.) *3628*
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species skimmer, black
Species Id M040192
Date 26 AUG 96
COMMENTS ON ADULT FOOD -
In Virginia diet nearly 100% fish of which over 90%
were silversides (Menidia spp.) and killifishes (Fundulus spp.) *3628*
COMMENTS ON JUVENILE FOOD -
In Virginia diet nearly 100% fish of which over 90%
were silversides (Menidia spp.) and killifishes (Fundulus spp.) *3628*
Food Habits - 2 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species skimmer, black
Species Id M040192
Date 26 AUG 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Water Depth Preference: Less than 1 ft.
G Coastal Features: Sand beaches
G Coastal Features: Sand bars
G Coastal Features: Mudflats
G Coastal Features: Dunes
G Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
G Coastal Wetlands: Coastal shallow fresh marsh
G Coastal Wetlands: Coastal salt meadows
G Coastal Wetlands: Coastal salt flats
G Coastal Wetlands: Sounds and bays
G Grasses: Specified in Comments
G Vegetations Successional Stage: Sand dune
G Human Association: Specified in Comments
G Coastal Wetlands: Regularly flooded salt marshes
LIM Coastal Wetlands: Regularly flooded salt marshes
LIM Coastal Wetlands: Coastal salt meadows
LIM Coastal Features: Sand beaches
LIM Coastal Features: Dunes
LIM Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
FA Coastal Wetlands: Regularly flooded salt marshes
FA Coastal Wetlands: Coastal salt meadows
BA Coastal Features: Sand beaches
BA Coastal Features: Dunes
BA Coastal Features: Sandy offshore islands
REFERENCES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 3628, 487, 3631, 486, 3624, 3633 and 3632
REFERENCES FOR LIMITING ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 3628 and 487
REFERENCES FOR FEEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 3628, 487 and 3625
REFERENCES FOR BREEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 3628 and 3632
COMMENTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS -
Spartina spp. *3625*; dredge spoils *3632*
COMMENTS ON FEEDING ADULT ENVIRONTAL ASSOC_ -
Feeds in saltmarsh channels and ponds *3628*
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species skimmer, black
Species Id M040192
Date 26 AUG 96
COMMENTS ON BREEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
Nests in sandy areas *3628,3632*
Environment Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species skimmer, black
Species Id M040192
Date 26 AUG 96
LIFE HISTORY
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: crow sized, slender build; 16-20
inches long; wingspread=42-50 inches; adult, black above, including cap,
but with white forehead; scissorlike bill with extending lower mandible,
red with black tip; legs and feet bright red; toes slightly webbed; at
rest, wings reach well beyond tail; eyes dark brown with vertical pupil
*1227*; REPRODUCTION: in Virginia, arrives at breeding grounds mid-April
to mid-May; peak egg laying mid-May to early July; peak hatch early June
to late July *486*; in Georgia nests averaged 0.9 m apart *486*;
incubation by female, 21-24 days *3628*; eggs, 4-5, sometimes 3, rarely
6; average 45 X 33.5 mm, short oval, oval, occasionally long-oval; shell
smooth, lusterless, bluish white, creamy white, pale buff or pinkish
buff, heavily marked, overlaid with dark brown spots, blotches, scrawls
*507*; incubates throughout the day *3628*; average clutch of 4 requires
4 to 6 days; 2 eggs may be laid on same day *3628*; male stands guard
beside incubating female *3624*; 1 brood/year, but season often
prolonged by nest failure due to storms, tides, disturbance; eggs may be
laid as late as August *486,507*; hatching success from 95 nests was
78.6%; fledging success from 29 nest was very low, less than 1 young
produced per breeding pair; first hatched young have nearly twice the
life expectancy of the second, and nearly 7 times that of the third
*3628*; nest is an unlined, well defined hollow in the sand, or shell,
on beach above high tide line; diameter=13-25 cm, depth=2.5-5 cm *507*;
in 19 Virginia colonies (1977) the average colony size was 141 pairs
*486*; BEHAVIOR: defends breeding colony by flying en masse at intruder
and uttering loud barking call *3624*; feeds by skimming in shallow
water, usually into the wind *3628*; skimming speed is 18 mph *3626*;
skimming success variable *3626,3627,3625*; in Virginia 1 item was
captured for every 5 minutes of skimming *3628*; feeds in small groups
or solitary *3628,487*; often feeds at night *487*; tides exert
influence on feeding rates and success, more active at high tide
*3628,487,3625*; delivery rate of food to young was 0.43 fish/chick/hour
in Virginia *3628*; feeds in bouts of 10-20 minutes *487*; majority of
prey fed to young were 1-5 cm long *3628*; roosts in large numbers on
beaches and sandbars, every bird facing into the wind *3624*; young hide
by laying prostrate on sand with head out stretched and eyes closed,
juveniles gather in flocks at water's edge until they can fly, young are
fed by regurgitation *3624*; very gregarious in winter; migration begins
as soon as young are able to fly; winters in Florida and Gulf Coast
*3624*; ORIGIN: native *3624*; LIMITING FACTORS: may be frequently food
limited during breeding season in Virginia; colony disturbance, weather,
and colony sites may limit during breeding season *3626,3632*;
POPULATION PARAMENTERS: in 1977, 19 colonies were known in Virginia with
2687 breeding pairs total *486*; AQUATIC/TERRESTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS:
usually nests in mixed colonies with common tern, Sterna hirundo,
gull-billed tern, Gelochelidon nilotica, and gulls, Larus spp.
*3628,487,486*; forages primarily in Spartina spp. marshes *3625*;
OTHER: may be some colony size threshold above which monospecific
colonies can occur *3632*; particularly sensitive to disturbance early
in breeding season; sensitivity decreases as incubation progresses
*3635*
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species skimmer, black
Species Id M040192
Date 26 AUG 96
REFERENCES FOR LIFE HISTORY- 3628, 487, 486, 3624, 3626, 3627, 1227, 3625, 3632, 507 and 3635
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species skimmer, black
Species Id M040192
Date 26 AUG 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Public education - law enforcement
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Maintaining unique or special habitat features [wetlands, caves,
Beneficial Developing/maintaining brackish marsh
Beneficial Developing/maintaining saline marsh
Beneficial Proper handling and placement of overburden and spoil materials
Beneficial Predator control
Existing Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Existing Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
REFERENCES FOR BENEFICIAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 3632, 4209 and 3635
REFERENCES FOR EXISTING MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 3632 and 3635
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species skimmer, black
Species Id M040192
Date 26 AUG 96
References
486* Erwin, R.M. 1979. Coastal waterbird colonies: Cape
Elizabeth, Maine to Virginia. FWS/OBS-79/10. Biol. Serv. Pgm.,
U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. Washington, D.C:212.
487* Erwin, R.M. 1977. Foraging and breeding adaptations to
different food regimes in three seabirds: the common tern Sterna
hirundo, royal tern Sterna maxima, and black skimmer Rynchops
niger. Ecology 58:389-397.
507* Harrison, H.H. 1975. A Field Guide to Birds' Nests of 285
Species Found Breeding in the United States East of the
Mississippi River. Petterson Field Guide Series No. 121.
Houghton Mifflin Boston, Massechusetts:257.
700* Ornithology, Virginia Society of. 1979. Virginia's
Birdlife: An Annotated Check-list. Virginia Avifauna No. 2.
Virginia Society of Ornithology Lynchburg, Va:118.
758* (ed.)1982. Fish and wildlife. 50 CFR 10 (Code of Federal
Regulations). General Serv. Admin. Washington, D.C:7.
1024* Parker, S.P. (ed.)1982. Synopsis and Classification of
Living Organisms. McGraw-Hill Book Co. New York, New York:1232.
1227* Terres, J.K. 1980. THE AUDUBON SOCIETY ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS. Alfred A. Knopf N.Y:1109.
3611* Berger, T.J., Neuner, A.M., Edwards, S.R. 1979. DIRECTORY
OF FEDERALLY CONTROLLED SPECIES. 3. Association of Systematics
Collections Lawrence, Kansas.
3624* Bent, A.C. 1963. LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN GULLS
AND TERNS. LIfe histories of North American Gulls and Terns.
Dover Publishing Co., Inc. New York.
3625* Tomkins, I.T. 1951. Method of feeding of the black
skimmer, Rynchops nigra. Auk 68:236-239.
3626* Davis, I.B. 1951. Fishing efficiency of the black skimmer.
Condor 53:259.
3627* Zusi, R.L. 1959. Fishing rates in the black skimmer.
Condor 59:298.
3628* Erwin, R.M. 1977. Black skimmer breeding ecology and
behavior. Auk 94:709-717.
3631* Erwin, R.M., Korschgen, C.E. 1979. COASTAL WATERBIRD
COLONIES: MAINE TO VIRGINIA, 1977. AN ATLAS SHOWING COLONY
LOCATIONS AND SPECIES COMPOSITION. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv.,
Biol. Ser. Prog. FWS/OBS-79/08. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Washington,
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species skimmer, black
Species Id M040192
Date 26 AUG 96
D.C.
3632* Erwin, R.M. 1980. Breeding habitat use by colonially
nesting waterbirds in two mid-Atlantic U.S. regions under
different regimes of human disturbance. Biological Conserv.
18:39-51.
3633* Erwin, R.M. 1979. Species interactions in a mixed colony
of common terns and black skimmers. Animal Behav. 27:1054-1062.
3635* Safina, C., Burger, J. 1983. Effects of human disturbance
on reproductive success in the black skimmer (Rynchops niger).
Condor 85:164-171.
4209* Anderson, D.W., Keith, J.O. 1979..
References - 2