(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species bear, brown
Species Id M050020
Date 26 AUG 96

TAXONOMY

NAME - bear, brown

OTHER COMMON NAMES - bear, Kodiak and bear, grizzly

ELEMENT CODE -

CATEGORY - Mammals

PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - ,

CLASS AND SUBCLASS - ,

ORDER AND SUBORDER - ,

FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - ,

GENUS AND SUBGENUS - Ursus,

SPECIES AND SSP - arctos,

SCIENTIFIC NAME - Ursus arctos

AUTHORITY -

TAXONOMY REFERENCES - 232

COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
Ursus arctos horribilis and U.a. middendorffi are subspecies of Ursus
arctos; the later subspecies occurs only on the Alaska islands of Kodiak,
Afognak, and Shuyak. All other brown/grizzly bears in North America belong
to the first subspecies *232*.

Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species bear, brown
Species Id M050020
Date 26 AUG 96

STATUS

Coded Status
T: Federal Threatened
See Comments

REFERENCES FOR STATUS - 232 and 274

COMMENTS ON STATUS -
Brown bears are managed by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game *232*.

Importance of Species: Because the brown bears that occur in the Southwest
Region are among the largest in the world they attract particular interest
from hunters and viewers. The bears are considered a very important species
economically to the guiding industry, air taxi services, and other related
industries *232*.

Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Distribution
Species bear, brown
Species Id M050020
Date 26 AUG 96

DISTRIBUTION

Distribution - 1 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS

HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL

REFERENCES FOR HABITAT - 232

LAND USE -
Water
Snow or Ice: All Classes
Beaches
Herbaceous Rangeland
Wetland
Shrub and Brush Rangeland
Tundra Land: Herbaceous
Forest Land
Evergreen Forest Land

REFERENCES FOR LAND USE - 232

COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Areas where dens commonly occurred were characterized by alder-willow
thickets and, in winter, deep snow cover. The alder and willow provide
concealment and, in some cases, bedding material. Den sites were located in
areas of snowdrift depostition *232*.

Water is believed to be a necessary factor in brown bear habitat, but in
Alaska water is not considered a limiting factor *232*.

An important food item, Carex lyngbyaei, is used in the estuarine areas on
the Alaska Peninsula *232*.

There is a high use of the coastal plain along the beaches, where bears
searched for dead marine mammals. Grassland areas, especially grass flats,
sedge meadows, and saltwater wetlands are also used extensively by foraging
bears. Spruce forests and shrublands were used most during the spring.
Bears were observed foraging along river courses and snow-free ridges and
mountain slopes during early spring. During late spring, bears foraged
along small creeks and moist drainages. During the breeding season, bears
observed in all types of terrain, from tussock tundra to talus slopes *232*.

Anadromous fish streams in coastal areas and lowland areas are frequently
used by bears*232*.

POTENTIAL NATURAL VEGETATION -
115 Alder thickets (Alnus)
099 Northern Hardwoods - Spruce Forest (Acer-Betula-Fagus

REFERENCES FOR PNV - 232

Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species bear, brown
Species Id M050020
Date 26 AUG 96

FOOD HABITS

TROPHIC LEVEL -
OMNIVORE

REFERENCES FOR TROPHIC LEVEL - 232

LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Plants Not Specified
General Osteichthyes Not Specified
General Mammalia Not Specified
General Domestic Livestock Not Specified
General Carrion Not Specified
General Umbelliferae Not Specified
General Cyperaceae Not Specified
General Sphenopsida Not Specified
General Leguminosae Not Specified
General Liliaceae Not Specified
General Poaceae Not Specified
General Cervidae Not Specified
General Otariidae Not Specified
General Phocidae Not Specified
General Cervidae Juvenile stage
General Cervidae Adult stage
Important Leguminosae Not Specified
Important Ericaceae Not Specified
General Umbelliferae Not Specified
General Cyperaceae Not Specified
General Salicaceae Not Specified
General Caprifoliaceae Not Specified
General Rosaceae Not Specified
General Araliaceae Fruit/Seeds
General Umbelliferae Fruit/Seeds
General Sphenopsida Bole/Stem
General Salmoniformes Not Specified
Important Leguminosae Roots
General Leguminosae Roots
Important Cervidae See Comments
Important Sciuridae Not Specified
General See Comments; Food See Comments
Important See Comments; Food See Comments

REFERENCES FOR GENERAL FOOD - 232

REFERENCES FOR IMPORTANT FOOD - 232

COMMENTS ON FOOD -
Brown bears are omnivorous but depend heavily on plant foods. They are
opportunistic feeders and will eat the flesh of fish, wildlife, or domestic
animals when available. Carrion is readily eaten when found *232*.

Spring (mid April to early July): On Kodiak Island, it was reported that
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species bear, brown
Species Id M050020
Date 26 AUG 96

brown bears fed primarily on newly emerged plant species such as cow
parsnip and red poque, sedges, horsetails, lupine, false hellebore, and
grasses; they will also scavenge carrion from winter kills of elk, deer and
marine mammals. Moose and/or caribou calves are important food species for
bears on the Alaska Peninsula, in the Nelchina basin, and on the North
Slope. In some areas, such as in the Nelchina basin, brown bears are, or
are suspected to be, the most important ungulate mortality factor. Brown
bears are known to prey upon adult moose and caribou. On the North Slope,
the roots of viscid oxytrope (Oxytropis borealis), American hedysarum
(Hedysarum alpinum), and the overwintered berries of alpine bearberry
(Arctostaphylos rubra) were found to be the most important foods used *232*.

Summer (early July to mid August): On Kodiak Island, bears were observed in
alpine habitat eating angelica (Angelica lucida), Alaska long-awned sedge
(Carex macrochaeta) and other sedges (Carex spp.), common horsetail
(Equisetum arvense), cow parsnip (Heracleum lanatum), nootka lupine (Lupinus
nootkatensis), and willow (Salix spp.). Alaska long-awned sedge was used
predominantly. Red elderberry (Sambucus racemosa) and salmonberry (Rubus
spectabilis) are heavily used on Kodiak. Bears feed heavily on red
elderberries well before they ripen. On Afognak Island, bears feed upon
huckleberry (Vaccinium ovalifolium). Carex lyngbyaei is an important food
source in estuarine areas on the Alaska Peninsula and bears use the
berries of devil's club (Oplopanax horridum) and the seeds of cow parsnip.
On the North Slope, during the growing season brown bears seemed to
concentrate on grasses and sedges, the leaves, stems, and flowers of
boykinia (Boykinia richardsonii), and the fruiting and vegetative stems of
common horsetails. Salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) are used extensively when and
where they are available. Brown bears are know to prey upon adult moose and
caribou *232*.

Fall (mid August to mid December): Crowberries (Empetrum nigrum),
blueberries (Vaccinium uliginosum), soapberries (Shepherdia canadensis), and
lowbush cranberries (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) are readily eaten when
available. Bears will shift back to hedysarum roots if berries are not
abundant. Lupine roots and broomrape (Boschniakia rossica) roots are also
preferred as foods by Kodiak bears. Also, gut piles of deer (Odocoileus
hemionus sitkensis) and elk (Cerus elaphus roosevelti) are becoming
increasingly important fall foods on both Kodiak and Afognak islands as
harvest of these animals increases. Salmon remain important along coastal
areas. Bears have been observed salmon fishing during December on the Alaska
Peninsula. Brown bears are known to prey upon adult moose and caribou.
Hedysarum roots, alpine bearberry, and ground squirrels (Spermophilus
parryii) were important foods for bears in the North Slope *232*.

Types of Feeding Areas Used:
Spring: On the Alaska Peninsula, there was high use of the coastal plain
along the beaches, where bears searched for dead marine mammals.
Grassland areas, especially grass flats, sedge meadows, and saltwater
wetlands are also used extensively by foraging bears. In the Nelchina
basin spruce forests and shrublands were used most during the spring. On
the North Slope, bears were observed foraging along river courses and
snow-free ridges and mountain slopes during early spring. During late
spring, bears foraged along small creeks and moist drainages. In
Food Habits - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species bear, brown
Species Id M050020
Date 26 AUG 96

addition, during the breeding searson (late May through mid July), bears
were observed in all types of terrain, from tussock tundra to talus
slopes *232*.

Summer: Anadromous fish streams in coastal areas and lowland areas are
frequently used by bears. Bears in the Kodiak NWR made extensive use of
alpine habitat during summer. Sedge-forb meadows are used extensively on
the Kodiak NWR. In the Nelchina basin, brown bears tended to move to
shrublands at higher elevations. On the North Slope, wet sedge meadows,
late snowbank communities, and tussock tundra used most frequently *232*.

Fall: On the Alaska Peninsula and Kodiak Island, salmon feeding areas
continued to be used extensively. Use of foothills increased by early
October. By mid October, the coastal plain is increasingly used,
although less than during spring. In the Nelchina basin, brown bears
move to shrublands at higher elevations in late summer and early fall.
On the North Slope, bears tended to use the floodplains of large creeks
and rivers as well as dry ridge areas or mountain slopes with ground
squirrel populations *232*.

Factors Limiting Availability of Food: During spring, snow cover and depth
can limit food availability. The size of the salmon escapement can be
influenced by both natural factors and human management. Weather conditions
that cause poor berry production can reduce the availability of this
important food source during late summer and fall. Human disturbance in
areas where food sources are concentrated can limit food availability *232*.

Activity Patterns: At McNeil falls, brown bears were fishing and the level
of activity was lowest during early and mid morning hours and peaking by mid
afternoon. Activity dropped sharply by late evening and remained low until
mid morning. During their evaluation of brown bear aerial survey result in
the Chignik-Black lakes drainages, peak activity on salmon streams occurred
in the early morning and evening. In the Canning River drainage, feeding
and resting take place throughout the day but rest occurred more during
the morning *232*.

Food Habits - 3 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species bear, brown
Species Id M050020
Date 26 AUG 96

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS

G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae

LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
RA Terrestrial Features: Caves, dry
RA Terrestrial Features: Specified in Comments
RA Shrubs: Specified in Comments
RA Slope: Specified in Comments
RA Elevation: 0-100 ft.
RA Elevation: 100-300 ft.
RA Elevation: 300-500 ft.
RA Elevation: 500-1000 ft.
RA Elevation: 1000-2000 ft.
RA Elevation: 2000-3000 ft.
RA Elevation: 3000-4000 ft.
RA Elevation: 4000-5000 ft.
RA Elevation: Specified in Comments
RA Hardwood Forest: Alder
RA Hardwood Forest: Willow
RA Hardwood Forest: Specified in Comments
RA Aspect: North
RA Aspect: Specified in Comments
RA Aspect: East
RA Soil Needs: Gravel
RA Soil Needs: Specified in Comments
RA Aspect: South
RA Aquatic Features: Specified in Comments
RA Grasslands: Specified in Comments
FA Meadows: Specified in Comments
FA Inland Wetlands: Inland open saline water
FA Inland Wetlands: Specified in Comments
FA Coniferous Forest: Specified in Comments
FA Shrubs: Specified in Comments
FA Aquatic Features: Specified in Comments
FA Coastal Wetlands: Specified in Comments
FA Coastal Features: Specified in Comments
FA Terrestrial Features: Talus
FA Elevation: Specified in Comments
FA Flood Plain: Specified in Comments
FA Terrestrial Features: Cliffs/ledges
FA Terrestrial Features: Specified in Comments
FA Slope: Specified in Comments
G Human Association: Specified in Comments

Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species bear, brown
Species Id M050020
Date 26 AUG 96

REFERENCES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 232

REFERENCES FOR FEEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 232

REFERENCES FOR RESTING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 232

COMMENTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS -
Aquatic: Water is believed to be a necessary factor in brown bear habitat,
but in Alaska water is not considered a limiting factor *232*.

Terrestrial Cover Requirements, Denning: Most dens are excavated, although
natural cavities are used to some extent when available. Den entrances are
bare or may be enclosed by brush. Tunnels and chambers are commonly dug
under the root systems of trees or shrubs or located beneath boulders or
rock strata that provide roof support. Although den reuse may occasionally
occur, most bears construct new dens each fall because most excavated dens
collapse after the spring thaw. Terrain slope where denning has been
observed ranges between 0o and 75o, but a majority of dens have been
reported from slopes of 30o and 45o. The orientation of den openings varies
within populations and from one population to another and even from year to
year. Seasonal wind directions commonly play a role in den site selection.
The slopes most favored are leeward of prevailing winter winds in a
particular area. Dens not situated to the apparent leeward of prevailing
winds are often found oriented to local topography so that wind eddying
provides heavy snow deposition so that the entrance is sealed *232*.

Southwest Region: It was reported that elevations for 80 brown bear
dens on Kodiak Island ranged from 30 to 1,006 m above sea level, with
the greatest proportion at about 550 m. Elevation was reported for 34
dens in their Terror Lake study area on Kodiak Islnad to be 620 m
(range: 152-1,006 m), with the greatest proportion (53%) at or above
610 m. Most of the observation were from the southwestern part of the
island, which is less precipitous and where most peaks are at lower
elevations than in the Terror Lake study area. A study reported that
the greatest proportion of observed bear dens on the Alaska Peninsula
was at about 396 m above sea level. They found that areas where dens
commonly occurred were characterized by alder-willow thickets and, in
winter, deep snow cover. The alder and willow provide concealment and,
in some cases, bedding material. On Kodiak Island, north-facing slopes
were most often chosen for denning, and on the Alaska Peninsula,
east-facing slopes. Slopes used for denning ranged from 0 to over 60o,
with a majority of observed dens on slopes of 30 to 45o. Dens observed
had been excavated, although denning in natural rock caves had been
reported on Kodiak Island and the Alaska Peninsula. Some return to the
same general location to den *232*.

Southcentral Region: Reported den locations along the Susitna River
ranged in elevation from 635 m to 1,570 m and averaged 1,255 m.
Typically, dens were dug in gravelly soil on moderately sloping
(average 32o) southerly exposures. None of the bears reused the same
den; however, many of the bears tended to den in the same general area
in successive years *232*.

Environment Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species bear, brown
Species Id M050020
Date 26 AUG 96

Arctic Region: Bears were found denning in a variety of terrain,
ranging from creek banks at low (270 m) elevations to mountain slopes
near the crest of the Brooks Range (1,280 m). Most dens were found
within the individual bear's home range; however, some bears were found
denning from 16.1 km to 43.8 km from their spring, summer, and fall
ranges. Den site elevations in the western Brooks Range ranged from
270 to 1,280 m and averaged 661 m, compared with a mean elevation of
975 m for dens found in the eastern Brooks Range. Den sites were
located an all exposures. Wind direction and snow deposition were
probably important factors in den site selection *232*.

COMMENTS ON RESTING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ -
Terrestrial Cover Requirements, Denning: Most dens are excavated, although
natural cavities are used to some extent when available. Den entrances are
bare or may be enclosed by brush. Tunnels and chambers are commonly dug
under the root systems of trees or shrubs or located beneath boulders or
rock strata that provide roof support. Although den reuse may occasionally
occur, most bears construct new dens each fall because most excavated dens
collapse after the spring thaw. Terrain slope where denning has been
observed ranges between 0o and 75o, but a majority of dens have been
reported from slopes of 30o and 45o. The orientation of den openings varies
within populations and from one population to another and even from year to
year. Seasonal wind directions commonly play a role in den site selection.
The slopes most favored are leeward of prevailing winter winds in a
particular area. Dens not situated to the apparent leeward of prevailing
winds are often found oriented to local topography so that wind eddying
provides heavy snow deposition so that the entrance is sealed *232*.

in successive years *232*.

COMMENTS ON FEEDING ADULT ENVIRONTAL ASSOC_ -
Types of Feeding Areas Used:

Spring: On the Alaska Peninsula, there was high use of the coastal
plain along the beaches, where bears searched for dead marine mammals.
Grassland areas, especially grass flats, sedge meadows, and saltwater
wetlands are also used extensively by foraging bears. In the Nelchina
basin spruce forests and shrublands were used most during the spring.
On the North Slope, bears were observed foraging along river courses and
snow-free ridges and mountain slopes during early spring. During late
spring, bears foraged along small creeks and moist drainages. In
addition, during the breeding season (late May through mid July), bears
were observed in all types of terrain, from tussock tundra to talus
slopes *232*.

Summer: Anadromous fish streams in coastal areas and lowland areas are
frequently used by bears. Bears in the Kodiak NWR made extensive use of
alpine habitat during summer. Sedge-forb meadows are used extensively
on the Kodiak NWR. In the Nelchina basin, brown bears tended to move to
shrublands at higher elevations. On the North Slope, wet sedge meadows,
late snowbank communities, and tussock tundra used most frequently *232*.

Environment Associations - 4 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species bear, brown
Species Id M050020
Date 26 AUG 96

LIFE HISTORY

REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS

Reproductive Habitat: Breeding does not appear to be habitat-specific *232*

Reproductive Seasonality: Breeding takes place from May to early July, with
the peak of activity in early June *232*.

Reproductive Behavior: Brown bears are polygamous. Pairing normally occurs
only for a short time and is dependent on a male's ability to defend an
estrous female against other contenders *232*.

Age at Sexual Maturity: The age when successful conception occurs varies
from coastal to interior areas. On the Alaska Peninsula and Kodiak Island,
it was observed to be between 3.5 and 6.5 years. In the Nelchina basin,
most brown bears appear to conceive first at 4.5 years. Some females first
conceive at 3.5 years and others at 5.5 years. In the eastern Brooks Range,
maturity was attained between 6.5 and 12.5 years. The maximum observed age
of reproductive females was found to be at least 23.5 years on the Alaska
Peninsula, 25.5 years in the western Brooks Range, 22.5 years in the eastern
Brooks Range, and 21.5 years in the northern Yukon *232*.

Fecudity: Average brown bear litter sizes vary from one geographic area to
another. The reported litter size of cubs of the year ranges from 1.73 to
2.46. A study found the average cub-of-the-year litter to range from 1.67
to 2.50. Estimates for survival of cubs of the year to yearling (1.5 years
old) vary greatly, depending on the particulary study. Most data are
wrongly based on comparisons of cub-of-the-year litter sizes with yearling
litter sizes. Frequently, mortality occurs to an entire litter of cubs. A
sow who has lost an entire litter will either produce new cubs the following
year or the year following that. Reported mortality of cubs of the year to
yearlings ranges from 31% to as high as 47% *232*.

Frequency of Breeding: Female brown bears generally breed and produce cubs
every three to four years. Frequently, the interval is greater than four
years *232*.

Gestation Period: Including delayed implantation, gestation lasts about six
months *232*.

FACTORS INFLUENCING POPULATIONS

Natural: Availability of food, such as a salmon-spawning stream or other
sources of rich protein, can influence local bear densities. Adult males
may cause significant mortality of cubs. Climatic conditions that cause the
failure of spring, summer, or fall vegetation food sources or an extremely
low salmon escapement also appear to influence survival of bears through
winter denning and reproductive status the following year *232*.

Human-related: A summary of possible impacts from human-related activities
includes the following: pollution of water and/or food supply; reduction in
food supply; disturbance leading to abandonment of habitat, especially areas
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species bear, brown
Species Id M050020
Date 26 AUG 96

of concentrated food sources; disturbance during denning/abandonment of
young; illegal hunting/killed in defense of life and property *232*.

ACTIVITY PATTERNS: At McNeil falls, brown bears were fishing and the level
of activity was lowest during early and mid morning hours and peaking by mid
afternoon. Activity dropped sharply by late evening and remained low until
mid morning. During their evaluation of brown bear aerial survey result in
the Chignik-Black lakes drainages, peak activity on salmon streams occurred
in the early morning and evening. In the Canning River drainage, feeding
and resting take place throughout the day but rest occurred more during
the morning *232*.

Homing: Homing of transplanted nuisance brown bears has been documented.
Studies conducted in Alaska found strong homing ability by brown bears in
the Nelchina basin. Sixty percent of adult nonnuisance bears transplanted
an average of 198 km from their capture sites successfully returned to or
near their original home ranges. It has been concluded that transplanting
of nuisance bears would have a high probability of failure *232*.

Nuisance bears: Brown bears often become "nuisance" bears in the vicinity
of villages, remote cabins/lodges, and work camps. These animals can cause
extensive damage and may be dangerous to humans. Factors such as improper
garbage disposal and poor siting of camps often intensify the problem, but
proper procedures can often prevent the occurrence of the problem *232*.

Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species bear, brown
Species Id M050020
Date 26 AUG 96

LIFE HISTORY CODES -
Nest/Den Site: Cave
Nest/Den Site: Primary cavity (excavates its own)
Periodicity: Other (specify in comments)
Mating System (Single breeding season): Polygamy (mal
Average Number of Offspring/Reproductive Effort: 1
Average Number of Offspring/Reproductive Effort: 2
Average Number of Offspring/Reproductive Effort: 3-4
Gestation/Incubation Period: 5-6 months
Breeding/Spawning Season: May
Breeding/Spawning Season: June
Breeding/Spawning Season: July

REFERENCES FOR LIFE HISTORY- 232

Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species bear, brown
Species Id M050020
Date 26 AUG 96

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE

Beneficial Restricting/regulating human disturbance of populations
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Developing/maintaining habitat diversity
Beneficial Regulating harvest of species being described
Beneficial Prohibiting harvest of species being described
Beneficial Other management practices [specified in comments]

REFERENCES FOR BENEFICIAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 232

COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
FACTORS INFLUENCING POPULATIONS

Human-related: A summary of possible impacts from human-related activities
includes the following: pollution of water and/or food supply; reduction in
food supply; disturbance leading to abandonment of habitat, especially areas
of concentrated food sources; disturbance during denning/abandonment of
young; illegal hunting/killed in defense of life and property *232*.

Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species bear, brown
Species Id M050020
Date 26 AUG 96

References

232 * State of Alaska Department of Fish, and Game. 1986. Alaska
Habitat Management Guide: Life Histories and Habitat
Requirements of Fish and Wildlife. (ed.). Alaska Department of
Fish and Game Juneau, Alaska:763.

References - 1