(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species moose
Species Id M050038
Date 26 AUG 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - moose
OTHER COMMON NAMES - moose, Alaskan
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Mammals
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - ,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - ,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - ,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - ,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - Alces,
SPECIES AND SSP - alces, gigas
SCIENTIFIC NAME - Alces alces gigas
AUTHORITY - Peterson, 1955
TAXONOMY REFERENCES - 232
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species moose
Species Id M050038
Date 26 AUG 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Migrant
See Comments
REFERENCES FOR STATUS - 232
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
The Alaska Department of Fish and Game manages moose *232*.
Moose are migratory *232*.
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Distribution
Species moose
Species Id M050038
Date 26 AUG 96
DISTRIBUTION
Distribution - 1 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
Habitat Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species moose
Species Id M050038
Date 26 AUG 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
HERBIVORE/BROWSER
HERBIVORE/GRAZER
REFERENCES FOR TROPHIC LEVEL - 232
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Aquatic plants Not Specified
General Poaceae Not Specified
General Cyperaceae Not Specified
General Pteropsida Not Specified
General Salicaceae Not Specified
General Betulaceae Not Specified
General Lichens Not Specified
General Caprifoliaceae Not Specified
Important Salicaceae Not Specified
Important Lichens Not Specified
Important Sphenopsida Not Specified
General Sphenopsida Not Specified
Important Cyperaceae Not Specified
Important Aquatic plants Not Specified
General Zosteraceae Not Specified
General Myrtaceae Not Specified
General Leguminosae Not Specified
General Eumycophyta Not Specified
REFERENCES FOR GENERAL FOOD - 232
REFERENCES FOR IMPORTANT FOOD - 232
COMMENTS ON FOOD -
Winter: Deciduous shrubs and trees protruding through accumulated snow on
the ground and within reach of moose are the primary food in winter. In
some areas, however, moose crater in snow to obtain nonbrowse forage such as
ferns. Several willow species are preferred, but the order of preference
varies from area to area. On the Kenai Peninsula, littletree willow (S.
arbusculoides) is most preferred, followed by scouler willow (S.
scouleriana) and bebb willow (S. bebbiana). Barclay willow (S. barclayi)
was least preferred. In Interior Alaska, the order of preference is
feltleaf willow (S. alaxensis), diamondleaf willow (S. planifolia spp.
pulchra), with scouler willow and halbred willow (S. hastata) preferred
least. After willow, the most preferred browse is paper birch (Betula
papyrifera). Because of the quantity of forage it produces, quaking aspen
(Populus tremuloides) is also considered important in certain areas.
Foliose lichens (Peltigera spp.) may serve as an important alternate winter
food source. In areas of low snow cover and on depleted winter ranges,
lowbush cranberry and foliose lichens can support high densities of moose
*232*.
Spring: Willows are the most important food in spring. Horsetails
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species moose
Species Id M050038
Date 26 AUG 96
(Equisetum spp.), sedges (Carex spp.), and aquatic plants are also
important. On the Kenai Peninsula in late April and during May, foliose
lichens and fruticose lichens made up more than half the diet of tame moose,
with lowbush cranberry making up the remainder of the diet *232*.
Summer: Variety in the diet is greatest during summer. During this period,
emergent vegetation and other herbaceous plants may be grazed, but leaves
and succulent leaders on aquatic and marsh plants, including sedges,
horsetails, and pondweed (Potomogeton spp.), are consumed in wetlands and
lakes and ponds up to 8 ft deep. During early growth stages, forbs such as
fireweed (Epilobium spp.) and lupine (Lupinus spp.) are heavily used.
Mushrooms are eaten in summer when encountered. In late summer, emergent
plants are uded less, and the diet includes more browse *232*.
Fall: During fall, the transition from summer forage to winter forage
occurs. The use of browse increases as fall progresses because many
herbaceous plants become unpalatable *232*.
Types of Feeding Areas:
Winter: Shrub communities, such as alpine and lowland willow stands, are
the most important winter habitat for food. When snow depths are
minimal, moose generally prefer more open shrub-dominated areas and sedge
meadows. As snow depths increase, moose shift to coniferous and
deciduous forests with closed canopies, when available, where snow
accumulation is less and understory vegetation more available. Mature,
undistrubed plant communities, occurring both in upland areas near
timberline and in lowland areas, are important late winter habitat, as
are areas recovering from man-caused or natural disturbances. Moose may
remain on their summer range if not forced out by deep snow. During late
winter, some moose may remain at higher elevations, where wind action or
temperature inversions reduce snow depth. Moose may crater through snow
up to 40 cm deep. Gernerally, upland areas of winter habitat are
dominated by willow or shrub birch (Betula glandulosa) and lowland areas
by stands of spruce interspersed with deciduous tree stands and wetland
areas *232*.
Spring: Expanses of wetlands interspersed with dense stands of trees and
shrubs, which are typically used for calving, provide abundant early
spring forage. Moose use natural mineral licks in some areas of Interior
Alaska mostly in spring and early summer to obtain sodium. Mineral licks
used by moose occur in some areas of southcentral Alaska also; however,
there are no detailed reports on these areas. No licks are known in
Southwest Alaska. Studies in Michigan and Canada indicate that aquatic
vegetation eaten by moose in the summer is an alternate and sometimes
better source of sodium and other mineral elements. Moose lick use
declined when aquatic feeding increased in Interior Alaska *232*.
Summer: Timberline shrub thickets and lowland areas with ponds
containing preferred aquatic species comprise primary feeding locations
during the summer. In mid-to-late summer, moose tend to move to upland
areas away from bog areas with standing water and to use browse in drier
areas *232*.
Food Habits - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species moose
Species Id M050038
Date 26 AUG 96
Fall: Both lowland and upland shrub communities may be heavily used
during fall. In Southcentral Alaska, moose typically use upland areas
*232*.
Factors Limiting Availability of Food: Snow depth is considered the most
important limiting factor for moose. Migration between summer and winter
range and daily winter activity may be influenced by initiation of first
snow, snow depth, day length, and persistence of snow. Snow depths greater
than 40 to 70 cm are generally considered the upper limit for areas utilized
by moose. Snow depths of 90 to 100 cm are considered critically limiting,
because at these depths movement is restricted and adequate food intake may
be impossible. Deep snow may also cover low-growing browse species,
reducing their availability and requiring moose to exert greater effort to
feed. The next most important property of snow is hardness, which
determines the force necessary for moose to move through the snow and their
ability to crater for food. The density, height, and distribution of forage
plants determine how much a particular area and vegetation type is utilized.
In Southcentral Alaska, moose generally confine their winter movements to
areas less than 3,600 ft in elevation *232*.
Feeding Behavior: Peak feeding activity occurs at dawn and dusk. During
fall, more feeding activity occurs throughout the day. Fall feeding
activity is usually influenced by the rut, reflecting greater social
contact. Bull moose at the Kenai Moose Research Center quit eating entirely
during the rut and that food intake decreased in females. 79% of summer
activity involved feeding. Cratering in snow to reach plants is common
throughout Alaska during fall and winter *232*.
Food Habits - 3 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species moose
Species Id M050038
Date 26 AUG 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species moose
Species Id M050038
Date 26 AUG 96
LIFE HISTORY
Reproductive Habitat: There are little descriptive data regarding moose
rutting habitat. Use of habitat during the rut may be influenced by whether
particular groups of moose are migratory or nonmigratory. Use of upland
willow shrublands reaches a peak during the breeding period, corresponding
with elevational movements of moose. Most studies conducted in the
Southcentral Region have found calving to be widely dispersed *232*.
Reproductive Seasonality: Breeding occurs during fall, with the peak of
rutting activity occurring between late September and early October. The
timing of the rut is remarkably synchronous among moose in different areas
and years in North America; this synchronism is reflected in the consistency
in calving dates observed throughout the range of moose. Parturition
generally occurs between late May and early June. As a consequence of
conception during later estrus periods, some calving may occur later, which
is disadvantageous to calves because their reduced size in fall may lessen
their ability to survive the winter *232*.
Reproductive Behavior: Moose often form large aggregations during the rut.
These rutting groups range in size from male and female pairs to 30 or more
adults. There may be movement of both bulls and cows to and from groups
*232*.
Age at Sexual Maturity: Moose breed annually. Females may breed as
yearlings (16 to 18 months) and are capable of reproducing annually until at
least year 18. Bulls are also physically capable of breeding as yearlings
*232*.
Pregnancy Rate/Number of Young Born: Natality rates for adult females range
from 1.00 to 1.20. Eighty to 90% of adult females in most moose populations
in North America become pregnant annually. The birth rate for two-year-old
females in North America was found to be 0 to 0.47. The lowest reported
pregnancy and twinning rates for moose in North America were 60% and 2%,
respectively; the highest rates were 98% and 70%, respectively. Moose
populations in Alaska tend to on the higher end of this scale *232*.
Gestation Period: The gestation period is approximately 240 to 246 days
*232*.
Lactation Period: Cows lactate until fall, then gradually wean their calves
*232*.
Factors Influencing Populations:
Natural: Winter mortality results from factors related primarily to snow
depth, density, hardness, and the persistence of these conditions over
time. Winter severity often manifests itself first in terms of reduced
food availability and restriction of movements and later in terms of
increased calf and adult mortality because of starvation and increased
vulnerability to predators. Recently conducted predator-prey
relationship studies in Alaska suggest that moose mortality
because of wolf predation is additive rather than compensatory. After a
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species moose
Species Id M050038
Date 26 AUG 96
moose population has declined from factors such as severe winters,
overharvest, declining range-carrying capacity, and/or predation, limits
on moose population growth because of wolf predation can occur. In
simple wolf-moose systems, predators can maintain moose at low levels for
decades. Prior to the mid 1970's, both brown and black bears were thought
to be scavengers rather than predators of moose. Studies of neonatal
moose mortality indicate that both species of bear can be successful
ungulate predators. Bear predation is the primary cause of mortality in
some moose populations and, similarly to wolf predation, is an additive
source of mortality. Experimental bear-reduction programs have
demonstrated that calf moose survival can be improved by temporarily
reducing bear numbers. Most moose populations produce adequate numbers
of calves to enable population growth. When growth fails to occur, it
usually is the result of high neonatal mortality. The relationship
between habitat carrying capacity and ungulate density is confounded by
predation. Managers attempting to provide sustained yields of moose for
human use may find predator management a necessity in systems containing
naturally regulated predator populations. Moose are subject to a large
number of diseases and parasites; however, usually they are not important
factors in population dynamics. Competition for food between moose and
hares is usually prevented by habitat segregation; moose, for example,
prefer open seral communities, whereas hares inhabit dense black spruce
(Picea mariana) or willow-alder (Salix-Alnus spp.) thickets, which
provide more cover. In general, direct competition is minimal except in
areas where forage has been extensively depleted or when deep snow forces
hares to feed at higher levels on shrubs *232*.
Human-related: A summary of possible negative impacts from human-related
activities includes: collision with vehicles; pollution of water and/or
food supply; reduction of food supply; vegetation composition change to
less preferred or useable species; vegetation damage/destruction due to
grazing by domestic animals; vegetation damage/destruction due to
mechanical removal of material; barriers to movement, physical and
behavioral; harvest, change in level; harassment or mortality caused by
domestic dogs, especially in deep-snow conditions; competition with
introduced animals; predation, increases; disease transmission from
susceptibility to introduced diseases and/or domesticated animals;
harassment, active *232*.
LIFE HISTORY CODES -
Foraging Strategy: Browsing
Foraging Strategy: Grazing
Periodicity: Active at dawn and/or dusk (crepuscular)
Periodicity: Most active in fall
Breeding/Spawning Season: September
Breeding/Spawning Season: October
Breeding/Spawning Season: May
Breeding/Spawning Season: June
Number of Broods/Litters (Reproductive Efforts) Per Ye
Average Number of Offspring/Reproductive Effort: 1
Gestation/Incubation Period: 7-8 months
Parental Care of Young: Female
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species moose
Species Id M050038
Date 26 AUG 96
REFERENCES FOR LIFE HISTORY- 232
Life History - 3 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species moose
Species Id M050038
Date 26 AUG 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species moose
Species Id M050038
Date 26 AUG 96
References
232 * State of Alaska Department of Fish, and Game. 1986. Alaska
Habitat Management Guide: Life Histories and Habitat
Requirements of Fish and Wildlife. (ed.). Alaska Department of
Fish and Game Juneau, Alaska:763.
References - 1