(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species otter, river
Species Id M050045
Date 26 AUG 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - otter, river
OTHER COMMON NAMES - river otter, Canadian otter, land otter and fish otter
ELEMENT CODE - 05/30/84
AOU CODE - 03/05/87
CATEGORY - Mammals
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - Chordata,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - Mammalia,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - Carnivora,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - Mustelidae, Lutrinae
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - Lutra, Lontra (Gray)
SPECIES AND SSP - canadensis, lataxina
SCIENTIFIC NAME - Lutra canadensis lataxina
AUTHORITY - Cuvier 1823
TAXONOMY REFERENCES - 45, 154, 134, 152, 12, 57, 74 and 5668
COMMENTS ON TAXONOMY -
AKA northern river otter, Canadian otter, land otter, fish
otter *57*
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species otter, river
Species Id M050045
Date 26 AUG 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Sensitive
See Comments
REFERENCES FOR STATUS - 90, 154, 57, 4344, 5293 and 6917
COMMENTS ON STATUS -
Scarce where waters polluted, residues of pesticides,
including Hg, DDT, and metabolites, mirex reported from tissues, highly
susceptible to overharvest as travel extensively in restricted avenues
of waterways *57* Game mammal in MO code, although there is no open season
*5293,6917*
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Distribution
Species otter, river
Species Id M050045
Date 26 AUG 96
DISTRIBUTION
References on County Occurrence - 001, 003, 007, 011, 025, 029, 031, 033, 036, 037, 041, 047, 049, 053, 057, 059, 061, 065, 069, 073, 075, 081, 083, 085, 087, 093, 095, 097, 099, 101, 103, 107, 109, 111, 113, 115, 117, 119, 125, 127, 131, 133, 135, 137, 143, 145, 147, 149, 153, 157, 159, 175, 177, 179, 181, 183, 193, 199, 550, 700, 735, 800 and 810
References on Seasonal Occurrence - Handley and Patton also note specimens from Amherst,
Franklin, Patrick and Fairfax City, but this is 1947 information *152*;
tracks in snow observed in Wise 1977, one trapped in Frederick 1977, no
other recent records in western VA *154*
References on County Abundance - 001, 003, 007, 011, 025, 029, 031, 033, 036, 037, 041, 047, 049, 053, 057, 059, 061, 065, 069, 073, 075, 081, 083, 085, 087, 093, 095, 097, 099, 101, 103, 107, 109, 111, 113, 115, 117, 119, 125, 127, 131, 133, 135, 137, 143, 145, 147, 149, 153, 157, 159, 175, 177, 179, 181, 183, 193, 199, 550, 700, 735, 800 and 810
REFERENCES FOR HYDROLOGIC UNIT CODES - 001, 003, 007, 011, 025, 029, 031, 033, 036, 037, 041, 047, 049, 053, 057, 059, 061, 065, 069, 073, 075, 081, 083, 085, 087, 093, 095, 097, 099, 101, 103, 107, 109, 111, 113, 115, 117, 119, 125, 127, 131, 133, 135, 137, 143, 145, 147, 149, 153, 157, 159, 175, 177, 179, 181, 183, 193, 199, 550, 700, 735, 800 and 810
REFERENCES FOR OTHER DISTRIBUTION - D
Distribution - 1 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
U_S. FOREST SERVICE FOREST SIZE CLASS
Unstocked
Seedling
Sapling
Seedling/Sapling
Pole
Mature
Over Mature
REFERENCES FOR FSIZE - 6917
REFERENCES FOR SAF TYPE - 6917
LAND USE -
Forest Land
Deciduous Forest Land
Evergreen Forest Land
Mixed Forest Land
Water
Streams and Canals
Lakes
Reservoirs
Bays and Estuaries
Wetland
Forested Wetland
Nonforested Wetland
REFERENCES FOR LAND USE - 132, 154, 152, 57, 215, 196 and 133
NATIONAL WETLAND INVENTORY CODES
NWI NWICLS NWIMOD NWISPEC
Lacustrine, limnetic FO2
Lacustrine, littoral FO1
Palustrine SB3
Marine
Estuarine, subtidal
Estuarine, intertidal
Riverine, tidal
Riverine, lower perennial
Riverine, upper perennial
Riverine, intermittent
Lacustrine
REFERENCES FOR NWI - 6037, 6917, 5517, 132, 45, 154, 152, 57, 46, 196 and 133
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
'Semi-aquatic' *154*; 'almost entirely aquatic' *57*;
though mostly aquatic may travel miles overland with same locomotion as
terrestrial carnivores *57,46,133*
ANIMAL/PLANT SPECIES ASSOCIATIONS -
Trematodes: Alaria canis
Baschkirovitrema incrassatum
Nanophytes salmincola
Habitat Associations - 1 Telorchis sp.
Cestodes: Diphyllobothrium mansonoides
Liguia intestinalis
Proteocephalus perplexus
Schistocephalus solidus
Nematoda: Capillaria plica
Crenosoma geglei
Dirofilaria lutrae
Draeunculus insignis
D. lutrae
D. sp.
Eustrongyloides spp.
Filaroides canadensis
Gnathostoma miyazakii
Physaloptera sp.
Spinitectus gracilis
Skrjabingylus lutrae
Strongyloides lutrae
Soboliphyme baturini
Uncinaria stenocephala
Acanthocephalans: Acanthocephalus spp.
Letorhynchoides spp.
Metachinorhynchus lateralis
Neoechinorhynchus spp.
Paracanthocephalus rauschi
Pophorhynchuys sp. *57,110,97*
REFERENCES FOR SPECIES ASSOCIATIONS - 57, 110 and 97
COMMENTS ON SPECIES ASSOCIATIONS -
Parasites/disease no severe impacts on populations;
Gnathostoma miyazakii and Stongyloides lutrae only 2 parasites with
noted potential for pathological damage *57*
POTENTIAL NATURAL VEGETATION -
101 Oak - Hickory - Pine Forest (Quercus-Carya-Pinus)
103 Southern Floodplain Forest (Quercus-Nyssa-Taxodium)
REFERENCES FOR PNV - 154, 134, 152 and 215
ECOREGION -
Appalachian Oak forest: Plains with High Hills
Appalachian Oak Forest: Open Low Mountains
Appalachian Oak Forest: Irregular Plains
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Plains with High Hills
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Plains with Low Mountains
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Open Low Mountains
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Flat Plains
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Irregular Plains
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Irregular Plains, slight rel
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Open Hills
Southeastern Mixed Forest: Plains with Hills
REFERENCES FOR ECOREGION - 154, 134, 152 AND 215
Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species otter, river
Species Id M050045
Date 26 AUG 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
Carnivore
REFERENCES FOR TROPHIC LEVEL - 32, 234, 90, 154, 57, 196 and 133
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Animals Egg/Fetus stage
General Animals Juvenile stage
General Animals Adult stage
General Annelids Adult stage
General Molluscs Adult stage
General Snails Adult stage
General Malacostraca Adult stage
General Insects Adult stage
General Coleoptera Adult stage
General Osteichthyes Adult stage
General Salmoniformes Adult stage
General Cypriniformes Adult stage
General Siluriformes Adult stage
General Perciformes Adult stage
General Amphibia Adult stage
General Caudata Adult stage
General Salientia Adult stage
General Mammalia Juvenile stage
General Mammalia Adult stage
General Leporidae Juvenile stage
General Cricetidae Adult stage
General Aves Egg/Fetus stage
General Aves Juvenile stage
General Aves Adult stage
General Anseriformes Adult stage
General Anatidae Adult stage
General Gruiformes Adult stage
General Rallidae Adult stage
General Carrion Fruit/Seeds
General See Comments; Food See Comments
Important Malacostraca Adult stage
Important Osteichthyes Adult stage
Important Cypriniformes Adult stage
Important Siluriformes Adult stage
Important Animals Adult stage
Important See Comments; Food See Comments
Juvenile See Comments; Food See Comments
Juvenile Salientia Not Specified
Juvenile Perciformes Not Specified
Adult Animals Egg/Fetus stage
Adult Animals Adult stage
Adult Animals Juvenile stage
Adult Annelids Adult stage
Adult Molluscs Adult stage
Adult Snails Adult stage
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species otter, river
Species Id M050045
Date 26 AUG 96
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
Adult Malacostraca Adult stage
Adult Insects Adult stage
Adult Coleoptera Adult stage
Adult Osteichthyes Adult stage
Adult Salmoniformes Adult stage
Adult Cypriniformes Adult stage
Adult Siluriformes Adult stage
Adult Perciformes Adult stage
Adult Amphibia Adult stage
Adult Caudata Adult stage
Adult Salientia Adult stage
Adult Mammalia Juvenile stage
Adult Mammalia Adult stage
Adult Leporidae Juvenile stage
Adult Cricetidae Adult stage
Adult Aves Egg/Fetus stage
Adult Aves Juvenile stage
Adult Aves Adult stage
Adult Anseriformes Adult stage
Adult Anatidae Adult stage
Adult Gruiformes Adult stage
Adult Rallidae Adult stage
Adult See Comments; Food See Comments
Adult Salientia Not Specified
Adult Perciformes Not Specified
Adult Caudata Not Specified
Adult Testudines Not Specified
Adult Serpentes Not Specified
Adult Insects Larva stage
Adult Oligochaetes Not Specified
Adult Osteichthyes Not Specified
Adult Aves Not Specified
Adult Hemiptera Not Specified
Adult Coleoptera Not Specified
Adult Diptera Not Specified
Adult Odonata Adult stage
Adult Odonata Larva stage
Adult Mammalia Not Specified
Adult Snails Not Specified
Adult Carrion Not Applicable
REFERENCES FOR GENERAL FOOD - 154, 57, 196 and 133
REFERENCES FOR IMPORTANT FOOD - 154, 57, 196 and 133
REFERENCES FOR ADULT FOOD - 5337, 6037, 5318, 5509, 5197, 154, 57, 196 and 133
REFERENCES FOR JUVENILE FOOD - 5337 and 57
COMMENTS ON FOOD -
9999S=not a significant predator of muskrat *154*; birds
Food Habits - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species otter, river
Species Id M050045
Date 26 AUG 96
occasionally, usually carrion; boon to fishermen: prey primarily on
non-game fish -- especially slow moving fish, bottom dwelling/'rough'
fish, secondarily on fish in abundance/large schools *154,57,133*;
insects: mostly large aquatic *154,57*; high metabolic rate, efficient
digestive system *57*; crayfish important in diet *154,57,133*
COMMENTS ON ADULT FOOD -
9999S=not a significant predator of muskrat *154*; birds
occasionally, usually carrion; boon to fishermen: prey primarily on
non-game fish -- especially slow moving fish, bottom dwelling/'rough'
fish, secondarily on fish in abundance/large schools *154,57,133*;
insects: mostly large aquatic *154,57*; high metabolic rate, efficient
digestive system *57*; crayfish important in diet *154,57,133*
COMMENTS ON JUVENILE FOOD -
9999S=parents devoted, teach young to forage *57*
Food Habits - 3 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species otter, river
Species Id M050045
Date 26 AUG 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Water Temperature: Specified in Comments
G Water pH: Specified in Comments
G Total Dissolved Solids: Specified in Comments
G Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Mud or silt
G Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Sand
G Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Pebble
G Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Gravel
G Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Rooted aquatic vegetation
G Flow: Less than 5 cfs mean annual flow
G Flow: Small streams [5-50 cfs mean annual flow]
G Flow: Medium streams [50-1000 cfs mean annual flow]
G Flow: Large streams [1000-5000 cfs mean annual low]
G Flow: Rivers [greater than 5000 cfs mean annual low]
G Water Velocity [Instream Flow Group Increments]: Specified in Comments
G Water Level: Permanently flooded areas
G Water Level: Semi-permanently flooded areas
G Water Level: Seasonal/Alternatiely flooded areas
G Water Level: Semi-permanently exposed
G Elevation: Specified in Comments
G Terrestrial Features: Burrows
G Terrestrial Features: Specified in Comments
G Aquatic Features: Pool areas
G Aquatic Features: Stream weed beds
G Aquatic Features: Lake weed beds
G Inland Wetlands: Seasonally flooded lands with emergent vegetation
G Inland Wetlands: Inland deep fresh marshes
G Inland Wetlands: Inland open fresh water
G Inland Wetlands: Shrub swamps
G Inland Wetlands: Wooded swamps
G Inland Wetlands: Inland saline marshes
G Coastal Wetlands: Coastal shallow fresh marsh
G Coastal Wetlands: Coastal deep fresh marshes
G Coastal Wetlands: Coastal open fresh water
G Coastal Wetlands: Coastal salt meadows
G Coastal Wetlands: Regularly flooded salt marshes
G Tree Cavities: Cavities in dead/dying trees
G Tree Cavities: Specified in Comments
G Aquatic/Terrestrial Ecotones: Woodland/water
G Human Association: National parks/historic landmarks
G Human Association: Wildlife refuges/sanctuaries
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species otter, river
Species Id M050045
Date 26 AUG 96
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Human Association: Specified in Comments
LIM Water Velocity [Instream Flow Group Increments]: Specified in Comments
FJ Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Specified in Comments
BA Snags: Specified in Comments
FA Bottom Type [Aquatic]: Specified in Comments
FA Gradient: Specified in Comments
RA Gradient: Specified in Comments
REFERENCES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 154, 152, 12, 57, 46, 196 and 133
REFERENCES FOR LIMITING ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 154
REFERENCES FOR FEEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 5517, 6037, 133 and 5055
REFERENCES FOR RESTING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 5517, 6037, 133 and 5055
REFERENCES FOR BREEDING ADULT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 5337, 6037, 5517, 133 and 6917
REFERENCES FOR FEEDING JUVENILE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 5517, 6037 and 133
REFERENCES FOR RESTING JUVENILE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 5517, 6037 and 133
COMMENTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS -
00020S=may travel on ice in winter or swim long distances
under it *154,57*; 00040S=absent in waters altered by acidic mine
drainage *57*; water quality in general: 'little work done on
identifying range of water quality tolerated' *57*; 00060S=otter habitat
destruction from increased siltation *57*; 00170S=need stretches of
water with flow swift enough to remain open in winter *154*; 00300S=from
marine environment to high mountain lakes; more abundant in food-rich
coastal areas/lower parts of streams, rivers *57*; 00410S=drift piles,
logjams *57*; 00540S=among tree roots *154*; 00900S=occasionally use
duck blinds, abandoned boat houses *57*
Environment Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species otter, river
Species Id M050045
Date 26 AUG 96
LIFE HISTORY
ORIGIN: native *90,154,152*; DESCRIPTION: large
weasel-like, body long and slender, small eyes, ears and head, short
legs, webbed toes, tapering tail (very thick at base); fur dense, soft,
short, rich brown above, paler below (esp. lips, throat); much paler
than L.c. canadensis; total length 900-1270 mm; wt 5-13.7 kg/10-25 lbs.,
males larger than females *154,152,57,46*; REPRODUCTION: sexual maturity
both sexes 2 yrs., males may not breed successfully until 5-6 yrs;
breeding season about 3 mos., late winter-early spring; estrus 42-46
days; delayed implantation, gestation period, 'confusion in literature'
288-375 days/about 12 mos.; females breed annually, shortly after
parturition, litter size 1-6, usually 2-4; peak parturition Mar.-Apr.,
in natal dens (overhanging banks, tree knots, abandoned streambank
burrows-does not dig own), approx. wt. 132 g., length 275 mm, blind but
fully furred; male avoids area of birth but rejoins family while young
learn to swim; forage when old enough to leave den
*154,12,57,46,196,133*; BEHAVIOR: young grow rapidly, eyes open 21-35
days, introduced to water by 48 days, venture from den on own 59-70
days, solid food 63-76 days but weaning about 91 days; family group
stays together for 6 mos.-1 year; active any hour (peak feeding
dawn-midmorning, evening) and season; home range: depends on prey
abundance--10-100 miles of stream, can cover up to 25 miles in a week,
10-100 sq. miles in a year; territories delineated by marks, signs;
female and male may overlap, but not male--male or female-- female;
barriers to dispersal=arid areas, mtn. ranges; mud and snow slides
characteristic of species, also 'haul-outs' or 'rolling sites': travel
alone or in groups of 2-5 *227,154,57,74,46,196,133*; POPULATION
PARAMETERS: tentative trend (1982-1983) is stable *4298*; sex ratios 1:1
but most of harvest samples more males-range more widely; lived 14 1/2
yrs. in captivity *57,46*; AQUATIC/TERRESTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS: only
serious predator is man, but reported to have been killed by: bobcat,
dog, coyote, fox, alligator, cougar, wolf, black bear, crocodile, large
raptors (probably take mostly young, adults on land) *154,57,133*
REFERENCES FOR LIFE HISTORY- 227, 45, 90, 154, 152, 12, 57, 46, 196, 133 and 4298
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species otter, river
Species Id M050045
Date 26 AUG 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Beneficial Regulating harvest of species being described
Beneficial Maintaining wilderness environment
Beneficial Developing/maintaining stream bank vegetation
Beneficial Maintaining/protecting riparian habitats
Beneficial Stocking captive-reared wild-strain animals
Beneficial Restricting/regulating human use of habitats
Beneficial Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
Beneficial Maintaining unique or special habitat features [wetlands, caves,
Beneficial Developing/maintaining water holes, ponds, potholes, etc.
Beneficial Maintaining dead/downed woody materials
Beneficial Developing/maintaining submerged brush, timber, debris, etc.
Beneficial Maintaining large trees for denning, nesting, or roosting
Beneficial Developing/maintaining suitable pH
Beneficial Developing/maintaining brackish marsh
Beneficial Developing/maintaining saline marsh
Beneficial Developing/maintaining freshwater marsh
Beneficial Developing/maintaining/protecting wetlands
Beneficial Controlling sedimentation
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
Beneficial Segregating and treating toxic materials
Beneficial Excluding livestock from banks and water
Beneficial Other management practices [specified in comments]
Adverse Applying herbicides
Adverse Applying pesticides
Adverse Applying insecticides
Adverse Applying fertilizers
Adverse Other management practices [specified in comments]
Adverse Draining wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Adverse Construction of navigational improvements [dams, locks, etc.]
Adverse Constructing/maintaining bulkheads, seawalls, and dikes
Adverse Dredging
Adverse Underwater explosions
Adverse Underwater mining
Adverse Surface mining
Adverse Clean farming
Adverse Stream bank protection - gabion matting or riprap
Existing Regulating harvest of species being described
REFERENCES FOR BENEFICIAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 132, 45, 90, 154, 152, 57, 46, 196 and 133
REFERENCES FOR ADVERSE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 6917, 6037, 5517, 132, 45, 90, 154, 57, 46, 196 and 133
REFERENCES FOR EXISTING MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 154 and 57
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Absent in waters altered by acidic mine drainage *57*; Otter habitat
destruction from increased siltation *57*.
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species otter, river
Species Id M050045
Date 26 AUG 96
Scarce where waters polluted, residues of pesticides,
including Hg, DDT, and metabolites, mirex reported from tissues, highly
susceptible to overharvest as travel extensively in restricted avenues
of waterways *57*
999(B)=much research needed *154,57*; first priority-review
status east of Blue Ridge; trapping season should be earlier-when
extends to Feb. 28, overlaps birth, mating seasons-wipe out 3
generations when capture mated female with litter in den; educate
fishermen, pond owners about food habits, value of otter; remove and
relocate from fish hatcheries, areas where unwanted, polluted waters
*154*; 999(A)=industrial pollution, intensive recreational development,
urban or agrarian development, creation of surburban residential areas
*132,45,90,57*
Management Practices - 2 (DRAFT) - References
Species otter, river
Species Id M050045
Date 26 AUG 96
References
12* Anderson, S., Jones,, Jr. J.K. (ed.)1967. Recent Mammals of
the World, a Symposia of Families. Ronald Press Co. New York,
New York:453.
32* Knudsen, G.J., Hale, J.B. 1968. Food habits of otters in the
Great Lakes region. J. Wildl. Manage. 32:89-93.
45* Burt, W.H. 1969. Mammals of the Great Lakes Region. Univ. of
Michigan Press Ann Arbor, Mich:246.
46* Burt, W.H. 1964. A field guide to the mammals. The Riverside
Press Cambridge, Mass:284.
57* Chapman, J.A., Feldhamer, G.A. (ed.)1982. Wild Mammals of
North America. Biology, Management, and Economics. Johns Hopkins
Univ. Press Baltimore, Md:1147.
74* Coues, E. 1877. Furbearing animals: A monograph of North
American Mustelidae. Misc. Publ. 8, Reprint 1970. U.S. Dep.
Inter. Washington, D.C:348.
90* Doutt, J.K., Heppenstall, C.A., Guilday, J.E. 1977. Mammals
of Pennsylvania. Penn. Game Comm. Harrisburg, Penn:282.
97* Erickson, A.B. 1946. Incidence of worm parasites in
Minnesota Mustelidae and host lists and keys to North American
species. Am. Midl. Natl. 36(2):494-509.
110* Fleming, W.J., Dixon, C.F., Lovett, J.W. 1977. Helminth
parasites of river otters (Lutra canadensis) from southeastern
Alabama. Proc. Helminothol. Soc. of Washington 44(2).
Helminothol. Soc. Washington, D.C:131-135.
132* Grimm, W.C., Whitebread, R. 1952. Mammal survey of
northeastern Pennsylvania. Pittman-Robertson Project 42-R. Penn.
Game Comm. Harrisburg, Penn:82.
133* Haley, D. 1975. Sleek and Savage, North America's Weasel
Family. Pacific Search Books Seattle, Washington:128.
134* Hall, E.R. 1981. The Mammals of North America. 1,2. John
Wiley and Sons New York, New York:1271.
152* Handley, C.O., Jr., Patton, C.P. 1947. Wild Mammals of
Virginia. Virginia Commission of Game and Inland Fisheries
Richmond:220.
154* Handley, C.O., Jr., Gordon, L.K. 1979. River otter. Proc.
Symp. on Endangered and Threatened Plants and Animals of
Virginia Linzey, D.W. Ext. Div., Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State Univ. Blacksburg, Va:522-526665.
References - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species otter, river
Species Id M050045
Date 26 AUG 96
196* Leopold, A.S., Gutierres, R.J., Bronson, M.T. 1981. North
American Game Birds and Mammals. Charles Scribners Sons New
York, New York:198.
215* Meanley, B. 1971. Great Dismal Swamp mammals. Atlantic
Natl. 26(1):17-18.
227* Palmer, R.S. 1954. The Mammal Guide. Doubleday and Co.,
Inc. Garden City, New York:384.
234* Poole, E.L. 1954. The otter-Pennsylvania's rarest
furbearer. Penn. Game News 25(3):4-9.
4298* Gwynn, J.V. 1984. Furbearer harvest investigations.
Virginia Wildl. Investig. Ann. Report, June 1, 1983 - July 30,
1984. Virginia Comm. Game and Inland Fish VA:330-354.
4344* Conservation, Missouri Dept. 1984. Checklist of rare and
endangered species of Missouri. MO Dept. Conserv. Jefferson
City, MO:17.
5055* Choromanski, J.F., Fritzell, E.K. 1982. Status of the
river otter in Missouri. Trans. MO Acad. Sci. 16:43-48.
5197* Greer, K.R. 1955. Yearly food habits of the river otter in
the Thompson Lakes region, northwestern Montana, as indicated by
scat analysis. Amer. Midl. Nat. 54(2):299-313.
5293* (ed.)1981. Wildlife Code of Missouri.:112.
5318* Lagler, K.F., Ostensen, B.T. 1942. Early spring food of
the otter in Michigan. J. Wildl. Manage. 6:244-254.
5337* Liers, E.E. 1951. Notes on the river otter. J. Mammal.
32(1):1-9.
5509* Wilson, K.A. 1959. The otter in North Carolina. SE Assoc.
Game and Fish Commis. Proc. 13:267-277.
5517* Yeager, L.E. 1938. Otters of the delta hardwood region of
Mississippi. J. Mammal. 19:195-201.
5668* Hall, E.R. 1981. The Mammals of North America, 2nd Ed..
John WI Sons, Inc. NY:1181.
6037* Schwartz, C.W., Schwartz, E.R. 1981. The Wild Mammals of
Mississippi (2nd Ed.). Univ. MO Press & MO Conserv. Dept.
Columbia, MO:356.
6917* Erickson, D.W.. UNPB., MO Dept. Conservation..
References - 2