(DRAFT) - Taxonomy
Species deer, Sitka black-tailed
Species Id M050050
Date 26 AUG 96
TAXONOMY
NAME - deer, Sitka black-tailed
OTHER COMMON NAMES - Sitka black-tailed deer
ELEMENT CODE -
CATEGORY - Mammals
PHYLUM AND SUBPHYLUM - ,
CLASS AND SUBCLASS - ,
ORDER AND SUBORDER - ,
FAMILY AND SUBFAMILY - ,
GENUS AND SUBGENUS - Odocoileus,
SPECIES AND SSP - hemionus, sitkensis
SCIENTIFIC NAME - Odocoileus hemionus sitkensis
AUTHORITY -
TAXONOMY REFERENCES - 232
Taxonomy - 1 (DRAFT) - Status
Species deer, Sitka black-tailed
Species Id M050050
Date 26 AUG 96
STATUS
Coded Status
Migrant
REFERENCES FOR STATUS - 232
Status - 1 (DRAFT) - Distribution
Species deer, Sitka black-tailed
Species Id M050050
Date 26 AUG 96
DISTRIBUTION
Distribution - 1 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS
HABITAT - TERRESTRIAL
REFERENCES FOR HABITAT - 232
U_S. FOREST SERVICE FOREST SIZE CLASS
Mature
REFERENCES FOR FSIZE - 232
REFERENCES FOR SAF TYPE - 232
LAND USE -
Mixed Forest Land
Forested Wetland
REFERENCES FOR LAND USE - 232
COMMENTS ON HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS -
Terrestrial cover requirements: Conditions providing security from
predators or other disturbances: Southwest region - Deer often avoid
pursuit by swimming. Southeast region - Clear cutting adjacent to major
roads or timber haul roads without a buffer zone results in a reduction of
the use of cuts by deer because of the continual disturbance.
Conditions providing protection from natural elements: Southwest region.
Cottonwood (populus sp.), birch (Betula papyrifera), scattered spruce
(Picea sp.), patches, and dense alder (Alnus sp.) thickets along steep
draws are used for cover by deer on Kokiak Island. Low-elevation coastal
Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) stands are used to some extent throughout
the year. Deer use the coastal fringe Sitka spruce forests in varying
amounts every winter, although these areas become very critical in winters
of deep snow. Afognak, Shuyak, Rasberry, and several other adjacent
islands, including northeast Kodiak, have extensive coastal spruce forests.
Southcentral Region: In PWS, deer cannot survive without the climax
coniferous forest along the beach fringe, which provides essential shelter
and forage during the winter period.
Southeast Region: Mature, old growth stands with a well developed canopy
intercept snowfall. Winter use of forest stands has been correlated with
high volume (greater than 30 mmbf/acre) timber stands during
moderate-to-hard winters. In milder winters, use is more dispersed and
includes lower volume stands (less than 30 mmbf/acre).*232*
ANIMAL/PLANT SPECIES ASSOCIATIONS -
cattle
elk
brown bears
wolves
black bears
coyotes
lungworm
REFERENCES FOR SPECIES ASSOCIATIONS - 232
COMMENTS ON SPECIES ASSOCIATIONS -
Predation: Predation by brown bears, wolves, black bears, and coyotes can
reduce deer numbers. Wolf predation can reduce numbers and delay population
recovery following heavy winter losses on larger islands or on the mainland
and is considered a factor that can accelerate population trends. Wolves
Habitat Associations - 1 were introduced on Coronation Island, a small previously wolf-free island,
where they reduced the deer population to a very low level. The retention
of "islands" of deer winter range surrounded by clear-cuts and regrowth
could result in concentrating deer during severe winter conditions and
making populations more vulnerable to predation.
Disease: Disease is not considered a limiting factor on deer abundance.
Lungworm infections, however, can be a significant mortality factor for
fawns and is thus a population regulating factor.
Competition: Competition with elk for available winter range can limit deer
populations.*232*
Habitat Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species deer, Sitka black-tailed
Species Id M050050
Date 26 AUG 96
FOOD HABITS
TROPHIC LEVEL -
HERBIVORE/GRAZER
REFERENCES FOR TROPHIC LEVEL - 232
LIFESTAGE FOOD FOOD PART
General Coniferae Not Specified
General Lichens Not Specified
General Cornaceae Not Specified
General Rosaceae Not Specified
General Tsuga Not Specified
General Ericaceae Bole/Stem
General Cupressaceae Not Specified
General Pteropsida Not Specified
General Bryophyta Not Specified
General Araliaceae Not Specified
General Plantaginaceae Not Specified
General Leguminosae Not Specified
General Juncaginaceae Not Specified
General Pteropsida Not Specified
General Poaceae Not Specified
General Onagraceae Not Specified
General Caprifoliaceae Not Specified
General Umbelliferae Not Specified
General Salicaceae Not Specified
General Picea Not Specified
General Rosaceae Not Specified
General Poaceae Not Specified
General Liliaceae Not Specified
General Pteropsida Not Specified
General Ericaceae Not Specified
General Lichens Not Specified
General Cornaceae Not Specified
General Betulaceae Not Specified
General Plantaginaceae Not Specified
General Ranunculaceae Not Specified
General Orchidaceae Not Specified
REFERENCES FOR GENERAL FOOD - 232
COMMENTS ON FOOD -
Deer utilize a variety of forage species throughout the year but prefer
herbaceous forage when available. They substantially increase their use of
conifers, shrubs, and lichens when herbaceous species are unavailable
species appears related proportionally to forage quality. Winter is the
period when forage availability is most limited and when two plant foods,
bunchberry (Cornus canadensis) and five-leaved bramble (Rubus pedatus), are
highly preferred where available.
Winter: Bunchberry and five-leaved bramble are primary foods on Admirality
and Chichagof islands under winter conditions of both little snow
Food Habits - 1 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species deer, Sitka black-tailed
Species Id M050050
Date 26 AUG 96
accumulations and of snow accumulation in open areas with snow-free areas
common under the canopy of an old-growth, uneven-aged spruce hemlock forest.
Under the conditions of little snow accumulation, fern-leaved goldthread
(Coptis aspleniifolia) is a primary food, as is yellow cedar (Chamaecyparis
nootkatensis), where it occurs on Chichagof Island. Under more severe
conditions of deeper snow accumulation and persistence, hemlock (Tsuga
spp.), and arboreal lichens (Usnea spp. and Alectoria spp.), and blueberry
stems (Vaccinium spp.) are also primary foods. On Prince of Wales Island,
yellow cedar, hemlock, blueberry, cedar (Thuja spp.), and bunchberry are
important winter foods. Under mild winter conditions, blueberry, spreading
wood-fern (Dryopteris dilatata), deerflower (Tiarella trifloiata), Labrador
tea (Ledum palustre), salmonberry are secondary foods on Admiralty and
Chichagof islands. On Prince of Wales Island, mosses, ferns, and ground
lichens are secondary foods where available.
Spring (April - mid June): In the spring, bunchberry, five-leaved bramble,
blueberry, devil's club (Oplopanax horridus), skunk cabbage (Lysichiton
americanum), arboreal lichens, and fern-leaved goldthread are primary foods.
Secondary foods are Aleutian heather (Phyllodoce aleutica), western hemlock
(Tsuga heterophylla), Labrador tea, and rockweed.
Summer (mid June-September): In the summer, bunchberry, five leaved
bramble, skunk cabbage, devil's club, and deer cabbage (Gauria crista-galli)
are primary foods. A variety of other foods have been reported eaten by
deer. Deer cabbage, skunk cabbage, and sedges are one of the most important
summer forage species. Secondary foods are plaintain (Plantago maritima),
Sitka vetch (Vicia gigantea), early blueberry (Vaccinium ovalifolium),
seaside arrowgrass (Triglochin maritimum), swordfern (Polystichum munitum),
beach rye-grass (Elymus arenaria spp millis), and Pacific reed-grass
(Calamagrostis nutkaensis). Only early blueberry and Pacific reed-grass
are widespread throughout Southeast Alaska.*232*
Summer/fall: (Southwest Region) In the Kodiak area, feeding occurs in
willow and alder thickets, among grass-shrub vegetation, and in alpine
areas (higher than 1,000 ft).
Southcentral Region (May-October). The following limited observations
partially describe deer feeding areas in Southcentral Alaska: In PWS, deer
feed along the margins of maskeg opeings interspersed within the climax
spruce-hemlock forest. On islands that are large and high enough to have
alpine areas, deer feed on the abundant high-quliaty alpine plants. Deer
often frequent slide areas, which are common in the alpine zone.
Southeast Region (mid June-November). Deer range widely to utilize
lower-elevation winter range, while migratory deer move to alpine and
subalpine habitats. Alpine and subalpine habitat is preferred, and use of
old-growth forest is extensive. Alpine areas are avoided in fall.
Winter: Southwest Region (September-April). On Kodiak Island, feeding
activities occur in grass-shrub thickets composed of cottonwood, alder, and
willow; in spruce forests, along windblown capes and bluffs with scattered
heath patches; on steep, windblown, and southerly exposed hillsides; near
beach-tiber fringes during severe winters; and within intertidal areas.
Southcentral Region (November-April). Winter feeding areas in PWS are
generally more limited than in the remainder of Alaska's deer range because
a higher proportion of land is muskeg, the timberline is lower, and the
beach-fringe area is narrower. Deer remain just below the snow line, moving
Food Habits - 2 (DRAFT) - Food Habits
Species deer, Sitka black-tailed
Species Id M050050
Date 26 AUG 96
up or down with the changing snow depths. When snow depths increase and
preferred evergreen forbs become unavailable, deer are forced to lower
elevations to feed in the coniferous forests adjacent to beaches. It was
found that deer use the forest's edge more than its interior. If snow
depths increase and beach-fringe feeding areas become depleted, deer are
forced to feed on the beaches. During a winter of extremely mild snow
conditions, it was noted that mountain hemlock forests (where at least 50%
of the net timber volume is mountain hemlock) in PWS received more deer use
than the spruce, western hemlock, or spruce/western hemlock forest types.
However, when the mountain hemlock component of this forest type is beyond
50% of the net timber volume, deer use may decline rapidly because of the
more closed canopy. The transition forest type, a mix of western hemlock,
mountain hemlock, and Sitka spruce, found in marginal or extreme iste
conditions (such as along muskeg edges or beach-fringe stands), was also
used heavily by deer. It was reported that deer preferred to use stands
with a relatively low tree basal area (and, therefore, with an open tree
canopy), large amounts of Vaccinium spp stems and Coptis aspleniifolia
biomass, a heterogenous canopy structure (usually associated with
uneven-aged old-growth forest), and relatively greater net timber volume.
Southeast Region (December-March). Optimum deer winter range consists of
high-volume (greater than 30 mmbf/acre) old-growth stands on productive,
well-drained sites with large, irregularly spaced trees and abundant
bunchberry, blueberry, and salmonberry in the understory. Winter use is
correlated with the abundance of blueberry, and bunchberry, and fern-leaved
goldthread. Dispersal of deer is greater during mild winters, with greater
use of low volume (less than 30 mmbf/acre) timber stands. Use of regrowth
stands of 0-147 years is proportionately low. Low-elevation (less than
1,000 ft) old-growth forests are preferred, whereas clear-cuts, muskegs, and
upper forest areas that accumulate deep snow are avoided.
Spring: Southeast Region (April-mid June). On Annette Island, deer were
found using young (3 to 25 years old) snow-free clear-cuts during spring.
Radio-collared deer were observed using a variety of old-growth stands,
including low-volume sites, during spring.*232*
Food Habits - 3 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species deer, Sitka black-tailed
Species Id M050050
Date 26 AUG 96
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G = General A = Adult
LIM = Limiting RA = Resting Adult
J = Juvenile FA = Feeding Adult
RJ = Resting Juvenile BA = Breeding Adult
FJ = Feeding Juvenile P = Pupae
L = Larvae E = Egg
RL = Resting Larvae
FL = Feeding Larvae
LIFESTAGE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS
G Hardwood Forest: Birch
G Coniferous Forest: Specified in Comments
FA Hardwood Forest: Willow
FA Hardwood Forest: Alder
FA Shrubs: Blueberry
FA Grasses: Specified in Comments
FA Elevation: 500-1000 ft.
FA Elevation: 1000-2000 ft.
FA Elevation: Specified in Comments
FA Elevation: 0-100 ft.
FA Elevation: 100-300 ft.
FA Elevation: 300-500 ft.
G Vegetations Successional Stage: Specified in Comments
REFERENCES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOC_ - 232
COMMENTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS -
Aquatic: Water quantity - Dietary water is obtained from snow in winter,
dew-laden succulent vegetation in rainy periods, and occasionally from
water bodies in dry periods.
Terrestrial cover requirements: Conditions providing security from
predators or other disturbances: Southwest region - Deer often avoid
pursuit by swimming. Southeast region - Clear cutting adjacent to major
roads or timber haul roads without a buffer zone results in a reduction of
the use of cuts by deer because of the continual disturbance.
Conditions providing protection from natural elements: Southwest region.
Cottonwood (populus sp.), birch (Betula papyrifera), scattered spruce
(Picea sp.), patches, and dense alder (Alnus sp.) thickets along steep
draws are used for cover by deer on Kokiak Island. Low-elevation coastal
Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) stands are used to some extent throughout
the year. Deer use the coastal fringe Sitka spruce forests in varying
amounts every winter, although these areas become very critical in winters
of deep snow. Afognak, Shuyak, Rasberry, and several other adjacent
islands, including northeast Kodiak, have extensive coastal spruce forests.
Southcentral Region: In PWS, deer cannot survive without the climax
coniferous forest along the beach fringe, which provides essential shelter
and forage during the winter period.
Southeast Region: Mature, old growth stands with a well developed canopy
intercept snowfall. Winter use of forest stands has been correlated with
Environment Associations - 1 (DRAFT) - Environment Associations
Species deer, Sitka black-tailed
Species Id M050050
Date 26 AUG 96
high volume (greater than 30 mmbf/acre) timber stands during
moderate-to-hard winters. In milder winters, use is more dispersed and
includes lower volume stands (less than 30 mmbf/acre).*232*
Environment Associations - 2 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species deer, Sitka black-tailed
Species Id M050050
Date 26 AUG 96
LIFE HISTORY
Reproductive Habitat:
Southwest Region: Because deer on Kodiak Island are usually found from sea
level to 1,000 ft during late May/early June, it appears that they give
birth at relatively low elevations in heavy cover.
Southcentral Region: Fawns are usually born in fringes of trees adjacent to
lowland muskegs or beaches.
Southeast Region: Fall habitats of migratory and resident deer overlap
enough to provide regular genetic interchange. Deer exhibit increased use
of muskeg habitats during the rut in fall.
Breeding season begins at mid October and peaks in mid November, with fawns
born from late May to early June. Bucks are polygamous and establish
dominance by mild pushing contests, antler presentation, pawing, and
stamping. From October to March, females are receptive to breeding for 24
to 36 hours during estrus. The estrus cycle of female deer is 24 to 28 days
and may be repeated several times if conception does not occur. Bucks incur
large weight losses during the rut, and by December their fat reserves are
often depleted.
Age at sexual maturity: Most does breed at 1.5 years (their seasonal fall).
The quantity and quality of available forage can affect the age at which
they first breed.
Southeast Alaska: In general, fawns and older female does do not breed.
Female fertility rates are considered to be similar to those of Columbian
black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) on Vancouver Island; the
subspecies is less fecund and attains maximum fertility more slowly than
other deer species. In-utero pregnancy rates are generally high, averaging
nearly two fetuses per adult doe in areas of Admiralty and Chichagof
islands. The average gestation period is 203 days, with a range of 183 to
212 days.
Factors Influencing Populations:
Winter severity (temperature, frequency of severe winters, snowfall, and
duration of winter season). Mortality during winter is generally recognized
as the most significant regulating factor on deer populations. Starvation
accounts for 80% of winter mortality, with fawns and animals in age classes
over five years old comprising the bulk of mortality and higher proportion
of fawn losses on ranges in good (vs. heavily used) condition. Mainland
deer populations, though seldom as high as island populations, are more
static than island populations, probably due to uniformly more severe winter
conditions and mortality factors.
Availability and quality of summer range: Winter survival also depends on
the ability of deer to accumulate fat during summer. The condition and
extent of summer range are primary factors affecting the size of animals and
the population density and age structure. Primary factors influencing the
quality and quantity of available deer forage are the degree of altitudinal
and topographic variation and the range of a population.
Predation: Predation by brown bears, wolves, black bears, and coyotes can
reduce deer numbers. Wolf predation can reduce numbers and delay population
recovery following heavy winter losses on larger islands or on the mainland
and is considered a factor that can accelerate population trends. Wolves
were introduced on Coronation Island, a small previously wolf-free island,
where they reduced the deer population to a very low level. The retention
of "islands" of deer winter range surrounded by clear-cuts and regrowth
Life History - 1 (DRAFT) - Life History
Species deer, Sitka black-tailed
Species Id M050050
Date 26 AUG 96
could result in concentrating deer during severe winter conditions and
making populations more vulnerable to predation.
Disease: Disease is not considered a limiting factor on deer abundance.
Lungworm infections, however, can be a significant mortality factor for
fawns and is thus a population regulating factor.
Competition: Competition with elk for available winter range can limit deer
populations.
Habitat deterioration: Habitat deterioration due to natural disasters such
as earthquakes, fires, and landslides can remove important areas of habitat
(e.g., beach-fringe timber, which is valuable winter range).
Human-related: Possible impacts from human-related activities includes the
following:
Alteration of habitat
Reduction of food supply
Harassment resulting in disturbance/displacement
Barriers to seasonal movements
Competition for available winter range with cattle
Overharvest
Predation by domestic dogs
Pollution of water and/or food supply
Southeast Region: The projected impacts of clear-cut logging on deer
populations are a result of 1) significant reduction of forage supplies and
impeded access to deer for one to two years after clear-cutting, 2) reduced
summer uses of clear-cuts from 4 to 15 years due to dense shrub growth and
residual slash, 3) reduced summer use of clear-cuts from 15 to 30 years due
to closing of stands, shading out of forbs, and dense shrub production, 4)
reduced summer use of regrowth stands for approximately 160 to 200 years due
to shading out of forage, and 5) reduced winter use of clear-cuts and
regrowth stands through the length of a timber rotation due to high snow
accumulations in open clear-cuts and lack of winter foods in closed regrowth
stands for approximately 160 to 200 years.
Special considerations: Deer populations are often geographically isolated
on small islands. Elk transplants are being proposed for the Southeast
Region. Elk compete for many of the same food plants as deer in other areas
of Alaska. Retention of only small areas of critical deer winter range from
logging could result in overbrowsing of these areas, concentration of
predation, and reduction of carrying capacity during severe winters.*232*
LIFE HISTORY CODES -
Breeding/Spawning Season: November
Breeding/Spawning Season: December
Breeding/Spawning Season: January
Breeding/Spawning Season: February
Breeding/Spawning Season: March
Mating System (Single breeding season): Polygamy (mal
Average Number of Offspring/Reproductive Effort: 1
Average Number of Offspring/Reproductive Effort: 2
Gestation/Incubation Period: 5-6 months
REFERENCES FOR LIFE HISTORY- 232
Life History - 2 (DRAFT) - Management Practices
Species deer, Sitka black-tailed
Species Id M050050
Date 26 AUG 96
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
RESULT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Adverse Timber harvesting - clearcutting
Beneficial Maintaining overmature forests
Adverse Migration barriers
Beneficial Controlling grazing of domestic livestock
Beneficial Regulating harvest of species being described
Beneficial Controlling undesirable vertebrate species
Beneficial Controlling pollution [thermal, chemical, physical]
REFERENCES FOR BENEFICIAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 232
REFERENCES FOR ADVERSE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - 232
COMMENTS ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -
Human-related: Possible impacts from human-related activities includes the
following:
Alteration of habitat
Reduction of food supply
Harassment resulting in disturbance/displacement
Barriers to seasonal movements
Competition for available winter range with cattle
Overharvest
Predation by domestic dogs
Pollution of water and/or food supply
Southeast Region: The projected impacts of clear-cut logging on deer
populations are a result of 1) significant reduction of forage supplies and
impeded access to deer for one to two years after clear-cutting, 2) reduced
summer uses of clear-cuts from 4 to 15 years due to dense shrub growth and
residual slash, 3) reduced summer use of clear-cuts from 15 to 30 years due
to closing of stands, shading out of forbs, and dense shrub production, 4)
reduced summer use of regrowth stands for approximately 160 to 200 years due
to shading out of forage, and 5) reduced winter use of clear-cuts and
regrowth stands through the length of a timber rotation due to high snow
accumulations in open clear-cuts and lack of winter foods in closed regrowth
stands for approximately 160 to 200 years.
Special considerations: Deer populations are often geographically isolated
on small islands. Elk transplants are being proposed for the Southeast
Region. Elk compete for many of the same food plants as deer in other areas
of Alaska. Retention of only small areas of critical deer winter range from
logging could result in overbrowsing of these areas, concentration of
predation, and reduction of carrying capacity during severe winters.*232*
Management Practices - 1 (DRAFT) - References
Species deer, Sitka black-tailed
Species Id M050050
Date 26 AUG 96
References
232 * State of Alaska Department of Fish, and Game. 1986. Alaska
Habitat Management Guide: Life Histories and Habitat
Requirements of Fish and Wildlife. (ed.). Alaska Department of
Fish and Game Juneau, Alaska:763.
References - 1