THE VERTEBRATE FAUNA OF AFGHANISTAN

Afghanistan's juxtaposition as a region where the Palearctic and Oriental faunal realms intermingle highlights its zoogeographic importance in a land which is dominated by the Hindu Kush mountains and surrounded by steppes and sandy deserts in the southwest. As a result the complex geography of Afghanistan supports a diversified fauna. The Hindu Kush range has acted as a barrier to a westward dispersal of most elements of the Indian fauna realm, with the exception of the Laghman and Konar valleys and parts of Nuristan, where oriental species are found. As a result, most of the fauna is typically Palearctic, hence the fauna is characterized by animals that are adapted to mountain conditions or arid steppes and scree covered deserts. Human impact has also been significant through hunting and alteration of habitat due to livestock grazing, collection of vegetation for fuel and unsustainable timber cutting.

Fishes

The Hindu Kush divides the country's commercial fish into two assemblages, mainly the trout and the carp. Brown trout Salmo trutta oxiana, locally known as kalmahi, is present in the northern drainage and is not found in the waters of southern streams of the Hindu Kush. The southern drainage which is rich in carp species are collectively known as shir mahi by the local inhabitants. The fish of the Seistan basin have been separated into two geographical divisions according to ichthyological studies conducted by N. Annandale in 1920. The Cyprinidae, which do not occur in the highlands of Central Asia, represent an element derived from the region lying south and southeast of the Helmand basin while the Schizothoracinae and Cobitidae are thought to have been carried southward by the waters of the Helmand river from the Hindu Kush. These fish are believed to have derived from fish of the extensive Oxus river system. Tributaries of the Indus river, which drain the eastern portion of Afghanistan contain several fish species. Brown trout and carp Oreinus spp. and Schizothorax spp. occur in the cold mountain streams of Nuristan and the Kunar valley, while two species of Cyprinidae occur further downstream, The largest fish in this drainage is the spiny eel Mastacembelus armatus, which attains a length of 75cm.

Amphibians and Reptiles

Afghanistan's herpetofauna has not been studied thoroughly with most of the work concentrated in the Kabul valley and in the south. As expected, the reptiles of the northern plains show strong affinities with that of the deserts and steppes of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, while elements of the Indian fauna are found in the south and east of the country. Amphibians are not richly represented in Afghanistan. The only salamander species, the endemic Batrachuperus musteri is found in the mountain streams of the Paghman range. The most common and abundant amphibian is the green toad Bufo viridis, which is found all over the country. Three species of frogs belong to the Rana genus. They frequently inhabit irrigation streams, although in far smaller numbers than toads. The Afghan tortoise Testudo horsfieldii is the easternmost representative of its genus; it is locally abundant in grassy places near springs and streams in rocky terrain up to an elevation of 2,400 m. It mainly survives on flowers and grasses. Trionyx gangeticus, a soft-shelled turtle, belonging to the Indus drainage system is found in eastern Afghanistan.

The largest group of lizards are members of the Agama family represented by 23 species. The most characteristic of this group is Agama agilis, which is widely dispersed below 2,500 m throughout the country. Caucasian agama Agama caucasica and Badakshan agama Agama badakshana, an endemic species, inhabits montane biotopes up to 3,200 m. Nine species of toad-headed agamas Phrynocephalus represent this family in the southern and northwestern semi-deserts. Two species of spiny-tailed lizards Uromastyx are herbivorous and live in long tunnels which they dig in stony desert soil. There are 15 species of geckos. Alsophylax pipiens, a nocturnal animal, frequents human settlements in the Kabul valley while to the east, the leopard gecko Eublepharis macularius occurs near human habitations. Among the Lacertidae, the most common genus is Eremias, representing 12 of the 14 Lacertid species found in the country. The small skink, Ablepharus bivittatus, is found at higher elevations between 2,300 and 3300 m. Two species of monitors are known to occur at lower elevations. The desert monitor Varanus griseus, is found throughout the country, while the Bengal monitor Varanus bengalensis, is only known from the Kabul river valley.

Of the 27 species of snakes recorded from Afghanistan, seven are poisonous of which five are vipers and two cobras. The carpet viper Echis carinatus, the most common among the poisonous snakes, occurs at lower elevations north and south of the Hindu Kush. The cobra Naja naja oxiana if found in the south and northwest, while the common krait Bungarus caeruleus, is known only east of Jalalabad. Among the non-poisonous snakes, three species of sand boas occur all over the country. The Colubridae is the largest snake family with 15 species distributed in the south, west and northern steppes. A common Eurasian species, the diced snake Natrix tessellata, reaches the eastern limit of its distribution in Nuristan and into Chitral. The diced snake is found near watercourses, where it lives on fish and amphibians. Another snake restricted to watercourses Xenochrophis piscator, is known only from the Jalalabad valey. The distribution of two worm snakes, Typhlops vermicularis and Leptotyphlops blanfordi, is not well known.

Birds

The first major survey of birds in the country was conducted by Knud Paludan in 1949 and he recorded about 300 species from different parts of the country in a treatise entitled The Birds of Afghanistan. Now almost 450 species are know to occur in Afghanistan of which nearly half are found in the steppe region. Within this region, more than 100 species of waterfowl and waders pay regular visits to the alkaline lakes of Abe Istada and Dashte Nawar. The later is the highest breeding ground of the greater flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber ruseus situated at 3200 m. A large number of flamingos visit this alkaline lake in spring. Dashte Nawar gets it water from snowmelt of the surrounding mountains. The rare Siberian crane Grus leucogeranus visits Abe Istada en route from India to its breeding grounds on the Ob river in Russia. Unfortunately the number of birds in this population has been on the decline and only one pair is reported to survive. Many other species also breed at these lakes, including shelduck Tadorna tadorna, black-winged stilt Himantopus himantopus, avocet Recurvirostra avosetta and gulls. The Hamune Puzak and Saberi lakes extending along the Afghan-Iranian border form an extensive habitat for many water birds, which overwinter there annually. These shallow lakes receive their water from the Helmand, Farah, Harut and Khash rivers. With the exception of the Helmand river, the other three are dry during the summer months and are inundated with flash floods after the snowmelt in the mountains of central Afghanistan.

More than half a million waterfowl and waders have been recorded in these lakes. Coots Fulica atra dominate the scene; greylag goose Anser anser, mallard Anas platyrhynchos, wideon Anas penelope, pintail Anas acuta, shovler Anas clypeata, teal Anas crecca, pochard Aythya ferina, and three species of grebes Podiceps, are some of the major species encountered there. Besides waterfowl, two species of pelicans, gray heron Ardea cinerea, great white egret Egretta alba, spoonbill Platalea leucorodia and cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo, and hundreds of waders such as shanks, plovers, sandpipers, snipes and gulls are also prevalent. Major raptors that are found in the area are eagles, harriers, kestrels and some vultures.

About 150 species of birds occur in the central mountains. The Salang and Khawar Passes forms major flyways during spring and autumn for large numbers of migratory birds such as white storks Coconia ciconia, black storks Coconia nigra, starlings Sturnus vulgaris and numerous species of waterfowl and waders which migrate from their wintering grounds to the northern latitudes. The chukar Electoris chukar, Himalayan snowcock Tetragallus himalayensis, magpie Pica pica, hoopoe Upupa epops, raven Corvus corax, chough Phyrrhocorax phyrrhocorax, alpine chough Phyrrhocorax graculus, a number of eagles and buzzards and the lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus, are some of the more characteristic birds encountered in the mountains. Kestrel Falco tinnunculus is the common raptor of these mountains.

Many species of birds with Himalayan affinities are found in Nuristan and Pakthia forests in the eastern parts of the country. Species such as Himalayan monal pheasant Lophophorus impejanus, black-throated jay Garrulus lanceolatus, white-headed bulbul Hypsipetes leucocephalus and Himalayan black drongo Dicrurus macrocerus are found in these forests. The ringed-necked parakeet Psitacula krameri and salty-headed parakeet Psitacula himalayana are summer visitors.

The steppes and arid semi-deserts of the southwest and north harbor few breeding species. During spring and summer migrations the avifauna of this region is enriched by large concentrations of larks and pipits. Tree sparrow Passer montanus, house sparrow Passer domesticus and swallow Hirundo rustica are common year round in towns and villages.

Mammals

Systematic collection and study of the mammals of Afghanistan did not start until the twentieth century. Prior to this British military personnel serving in Afghanistan collected mammals in the country. The specimens collected by them are common mammals which are most abundant. J.L. Chaworth-Musters conducted the first zoological expedition in the country in the 1930s whose primary objective was to collect mammals. The Third Danish Expedition to Central Asia (1948-49) collected 155 mammalian specimens from Afghanistan which are recorded in Knud Paludan's notes on Afghanistan mammals. The Street Expedition of the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago carried out a survey of mammals in 1965. A team of German scientists from Bonn University, affiliated with the Faculty of Science, made comprehensive collections of mammals in the 1970's and between 1966 and 1968 the Czechoslovak Team working in affiliation with Nangarhar University collected mammals in different parts of the country.

One hundred and twenty species of mammals are known from Afghanistan. The rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, is the only primate species which occurs in Afghanistan. It is restricted to the forests of the east in Nuristan and Pakthia. The country harbors a rich assemblage of carnivores, but unfortunately most populations are experiencing drastic reductions in numbers. The cheetah Acinonyx jubatus venaticus, once common in the southern and western steppes, is extinct due to reduction of its prey species, the goitered gazelle Gazella subgutturosa and onager Equus hemiones. Likewise, the Caspian tiger Panthera tigris virgata, once common in the wetlands of Darqad and the Morghab basin, has been exterminated through habitat destruction and intensive hunting. Similarly populations of snow leopard Uncia uncia, which is found in alpine valleys of the Pamir plateau and northern Hindu Kush range have been depleted due to human pressure. The leopard Panthera pardus and lynx Lynx lynx, inhabiting the central highlands have also declined in numbers during recent years. Among the smaller cats, the Pallas's cat Felis manul and desert cat Felis lybica, although not endangered, are experiencing intense human predation as a result of an expanding fur trade.

The wolf Canis lupus and red fox Vulpes vulpes, are widely distributed throughout the country. They are found at elevations ranging from 300 m in the Seistan basin up to 4,000 m in alpine valleys of Badakshan. Lack of any substantial records of sand fox Vulpes ruppelli and Blandford's fox Vulpes cana suggests that these two desert foxes have become very rare. The jackal Canis aureus is common in the steppes and deserts.

Of the two species of mongoose found in Afghanistan, the small Indian mongoose Herpestes auropunctatus is common around Kandahar and in the Hari Rud and Seistan basin, while the status of the Indian gray mongoose Herpestes edwardsi is uncertain. The bears of Afghanistan are restricted to mountainous and forested zones. The Asiatic black bear Ursus thibetanus inhabits the Laghman and Nuristan forests, while the brown bear Ursus arctos inhabits the Pamir mountains.

Eight species of Mustelids occur in Afghanistan. They have an extensive range and are found in varying habitats. Trapping by hunters has reduced the number of species such as stone marten Martes foina, ermine Mustela ereminea and weasel Mustela nivalis. The common otter Lutra lutra occurs along watercourses of most rivers and its range extends into the forested Konar region. The striped hyena Hyaena hyaena is distributed in the steppes.

Five species of ungulates are found in the mountains of Afghanistan. Marco Polo sheep Ovis ammon poli occupy the alpine ranges in the Pamir mountains. Siberian ibex Capra ibex sibericus occur in the Pamir, Darwaz peninsula and the Zebak region of Badakshan in the north. In central Afghanistan they are found in the Ajar valley and the Kohe Baba range with a western extension towards the Siyah Koh range. Urial Ovis orientalis populations occur throughout the Hindi Kush and the mountains of central Afghanistan. The largest concentration, prior to the outbreak of the war, was in the Ajar Valley reserve. The wild goat Capra aegagrus is found in the drier mountains of central Afghanistan including the Hazarajat and Uruzgan mountains, the Feroz Koh and Siyah Koh in the headwaters of the Hari Rud, Farah Rud, Helmand and Arghandab rivers. The markhor Capra falconeri is distributed in the eastern forested regions of Nuristan, Laghman, the Kohe Safi area of Kapisa province and the Kabul gorge.

The Bactrian deer Cervus elaphus bactrianus, once common in the wetlands of the Oxus river, is endangered because of habitat destruction and hunting pressure. The musk deer Moschus moschiferus, which occurred in Nuristan, has not been reported during recent years and may be extinct there. The wild boar Sus scrofa has an extensive ecological range and breeds successfully in swamps and reed beds along major river drainages in many parts of the country.

Of the insectivorous mammals, the long-eared hedgehog Hemiechinus auritus and Afghan hedgehog Hemiechinus megalotis are sparsely distributed in the steppes and semi-deserts, while Brandt's hedgehog Paraechinus hypomelas is only recorded from the Jalalabad valley in eastern Afghanistan. Shrews are found in the lowlands and mountainous terrain as well. The cape hare Lepus capensis is the most common Lagomorph species and has a wide distribution extending from the western steppes to the Pamir mountains. The Afghan pika Ochotona rufescens occurs in sub-alpine valleys and is scattered from the Salang pass to the Uruzgan mountains, while the range of large-eared pika Ochotona macrotis is limited to the valleys of Badakhshan.

The long-tailed marmot's Marmota caudata range is restricted to alpine valleys above 3,000 m. It occurs in the Pamir, Zebak and Darwaz valleys of Badakhshan, northern Hindu Kush as well as the centrally located mountains around Nawar. Two arboreal species of squirrels, the giant flying squirrel Petaurista petaurista and arrow-tailed flying squirrel Hylopetes fimbriatus inhabit the Nuristan and Spinghar forests. During spring and summer, when not hibernating, the ground squirrel Spermophilus fulvus is abundant in the Ghazni and Katawaz plains, while the long-clawed squirrel Spermophilopsis leptodactylus occurs in clay and loess biotopes of northern Afghanistan. Populations of small rodents such as voles and gerbils Cricetidae and rats Muridae is on the rise and these critters are posing serious problems to agriculture in the steppes. An expanding agricultural economy, reduction in predator numbers, especially wild cats and foxes, and favorable weather conditions have fostered the increase.

Thirty-two species of bats have been identified in Afghanistan. Their preferred habitat is in warmer sections of the country, where they may be found in abandoned ruins and caves of the Seistan basin, the Jalalabad valley and the steppes. To the east, common bats Myotis and Pipistrellus have been observed in Laghman and the Kabul river valley.

Khushal Habibi

Last Update: 8/14/02