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From: ECANL Mailing List
Subject: Abstracts: Ecological Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting
Attached below are the abstracts for scientific presentations at the
Ecological Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting conference on February
23-24, 2002, sponsored by The Urban Wildlands Group and the UCLA Institute
of the Environment.
Catherine Rich and Travis Longcore
Conference Co-Chairs
Ecological Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting
Abstracts
Plant photoreceptors: proteins that perceive information vital for plant
development from the light environment
Winslow R. Briggs
Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institution of Washington
260 Panama Street, Stanford, California 94305, USA
Tel: (650) 325-1521 x207, Fax: (650) 325-6857, Email:
briggs@andrew2.stanford.edu
As sessile organisms, higher plants rely heavily on environmental signals to
guide their development. Among the more important environmental signals are
those that come from their light environment. Thus in the course of
evolution plants have acquired a wide range of photoreceptors that perceive
and respond to light signals in the ultraviolet, blue, red, and
near-infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. In the model plant
Arabidopsis thaliana, nine different photoreceptors have been characterized.
Those absorbing and responding to UV-A and blue wavelengths of light include
two cryptochromes, cry1 and cry2, and two phototropins, phot1 and phot2.
Those absorbing in the red and far-red regions of the spectrum are the five
phytochromes. There is also evidence for photoreceptors that sense and
respond to UV-B, although these remain to be characterized. These many
photoreceptors allow the plant to measure and respond to four parameters of
the light environment: light spectral quality, light intensity, light
direction, and light duration. Sometimes these photoreceptors act
independently, sometimes redundantly, sometimes cooperatively, sometimes
antagonistically, sometimes at the same stage of development, and sometimes
at different stages of development. Some of the responses are incredibly
sensitive, responding to levels of light that even the human eye can barely
perceive. Among the many processes affected by light are seed germination,
stem elongation, leaf expansion, conversion from a vegetative state to a
flowering state, flower development, fruit development, and senescence.
There is virtually no rigorous research on the influence of urban lighting
on plants. There are anecdotal reports of leaves of deciduous trees failing
to senesce in proximity to streetlights because they perceive a long day
instead of a short one, but little else. While it is highly likely that
urban light does affect plant development, research is badly needed to
assess what the effects might be.
Measuring light pollution in urban lakes and its effects on lake
invertebrates
Marianne V. Moore and Susan J. Kohler
Department of Biological Sciences and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Center,
Wellesley College
106 Central Street, Wellesley, Massachusetts 02481-8203, USA
Tel: (781) 283-3098, Fax: (781) 283-3642, Email: mmoore@wellesley.edu
Lakes or coastal waters in or near cities may experience high levels of
artificial light at night, because they are generally not shaded by trees or
buildings. Predicting ecological effects of this light on submerged
organisms requires estimating the amount of artificial light at the water¹s
surface and the depth of its penetration. This has never been done, in
part, because no light meters are available commercially for quantifying
such low light intensities either at the surface of aquatic habitats or
underwater. We obtained two independent measures of the intensity of
artificial lighting at the surface of five lakes by using two different
instruments: 1) a custom-built light meter containing a photomultiplier
tube, and 2) a modified diode-array spectrometer. The lakes ranged in
location from inner city Boston, Massachusetts to within the White Mountains
National Forest, New Hampshire. We also measured the spectral distribution
of the artificial light, and we estimated its depth of penetration
underwater. Spectra of the artificial light striking all urban and suburban
lakes were nearly identical, and were dominated by light in the yellow
region with a peak centered at approximately 590 nm and a width at
halfheight of approximately 55 nm. These spectra closely matched the
emission spectrum of high pressure sodium lamps, the most common street lamp
in the USA. Incident levels of artificial light at an urban lake (on the
order of 10-3 µE m-2 s-1) were similar to the light intensity emitted
from a
full moon and nearly 50 times greater than that of a rural lake illuminated
by starlight only. On average, suburban lakes experienced artificial light
intensities 530 times greater than that of the rural lake. Cloud cover
increased incident levels of artificial light two- to threefold. The depth
to which this artificial light is biologically detectable underwater by
crustacean grazers and fish was estimated to be approximately 3 meters using
vertical extinction coefficients determined for the lakes in conjunction
with published limits of light detection by aquatic organisms. Potential
effects of this light on submerged aquatic organisms and results from field
experiments in which artificial light was manipulated will be discussed.
Artificial night lighting and insects in Germany
Gerhard Eisenbeis
Department of Biology < Institute of Zoology, Soil Biology and Soil Ecology
Group
Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, D-55099 Mainz, Germany
Tel: +(49) 6131-39-22574, Fax: +(49) 6131-39-23835, Email:
geisenbe@mail.uni-mainz.de
Nocturnal insects are extremely sensitive to outdoor lighting because they
have evolved special adaptations of photoreception. They are often
attracted to perform endless turns in the light sphere of lamps, but there
are other exogenous and endogenous factors that control their behavior. The
death struggle of insects around light sources can be described by special
effects, e.g. "captivation effect," "crash-barrier effect,"
or "vacuum
cleaner effect." In many cases insects become disorientated by these
effects and are no longer able to perform their basic functions of nutrition
and reproduction. Some results from a study within a rural landscape of
Germany will be presented, showing the impact of different street lamp types
on insects during a full summer season. These differences were quantified
as capture ratios regarding both the bulk of insect orders or special orders
alone. Besides light quality, the habitat characteristics were revealed to
be important in this context as well. Additionally, the influence of full
and new moon, and of the evening temperature on the nocturnal activity of
insects will be shown. These facts suggest that outdoor lighting may be a
serious threat to insects. Based on results from literature an attempt is
made to calculate the dimension of insect mortality resulting from a street
lamp pool of a larger city up to the whole area level of Germany.
Thereafter some examples of how species and populations with different life
strategies may be influenced by lighting are considered. Finally, examples
of energy savings from converting older street lamp systems into modern
systems will be shown, especially the change away from high-pressure mercury
lamps, which may reduce energy costs and CO2 emissions significantly. The
modernization of public lighting is beneficial both for township budgets and
for the agenda of nature conservation, especially of insects.
Impact of artificial lighting on moths
Kenneth D. Frank
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
Email: KenFrank@aol.com
Artificial lighting has been blamed for decreases in populations of moths.
By disrupting moth navigation and suppressing flight, it interferes with
mating, dispersal, and migration. It also disturbs feeding, oviposition,
nocturnal vision and, possibly, circadian rhythms. It increases predation
by birds, bats, spiders, and other predators. It traps moths in buildings,
diverts moths into vehicular traffic, and burns or desiccates moths that fly
into lamp housings. Almost all of these effects are a consequence of
flight-to-light behavior. Most species of macrolepidoptera moths exhibit
such behavior, and most kinds of lamps used for artificial lighting elicit
it. However, many species of moths thrive near urban and suburban lighting.
Destruction of vast numbers of moths in light traps has failed to eradicate
moth populations. Extinctions due exclusively to artificial lighting have
not been documented. Nevertheless, artificial lighting may weaken or
eliminate small populations threatened by other disturbances, particularly
in habitats fragmented by urban development. It generates selective
pressure favoring evolutionary modification of flight-to-light behavior.
Because parasitoids of some moth species fly to light, artificial lighting
may disturb natural control of moth populations. Lighting should be
restricted where protection of biodiversity is a high priority, such as in
unusual ecological habitats, and in certain agricultural and horticultural
settings. To limit artificial lighting, light sources should be turned off
whenever illumination is not essential. Lamp housings should be sealed
tight, and located away from structures that may trap insects. Low-pressure
sodium lamps should be used in preference to other kinds of lamps.
Stray light, fireflies, and fireflyers
James E. Lloyd
Department of Entomology & Nematology, University of Florida
Building 970, Natural Area Road, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA
Tel: (352) 392-1901 x124, Email: pjhowell@ufl.edu
Fireflies (Lampyridae, Coleoptera) that use their chemiluminescence for
sexual communication have a number of attributes that make them good as well
as unique subjects when considering the effects of artificial light in
natural environments. First, fireflies may be expected to have
inappropriate "innate" responses to foreign light similar to those
that
occur in other organisms, but because of their conspicuous luminescent
signals, some alterations may be more easily monitored and quantified.
Second, because much of firefly life activity is mediated through their own
pinpoints of light in otherwise dimly lit or dark environments, firefly
relationship to light is virtually unique in the terrestrial world; thus,
foreign light will have even more serious consequences for them, and they
provide a special case for study. Fireflies may be useful as model systems
for the study of the long- and short-term consequences of ecological insults
that occur in combination. Third, because of their unique place in human
culture, fireflies can be used as subjects as well as icons when educating
and enlisting the help of the public, especially children and older
students, and for reminding them of the continuing attention that is
required to improve and then maintain healthy natural environments.
Observed and potential effects of artificial light on the behavior, ecology,
and evolution of nocturnal frogs
Bryant W. Buchanan
Department of Biology, Utica College of Syracuse University
1600 Burrstone Road, Utica, New York 13502, USA
Tel: (315) 792-3131, Fax: (315) 792-3831, Email: bbuchanan@utica.ucsu.edu
Most frogs are thought to be largely or completely nocturnal. About 3500
species of frogs inhabit a wide variety of fossorial, terrestrial, aquatic,
and arboreal habitats and possess a wide variety of visual adaptations to
these varied environments. Understanding frog natural history, activity
patterns, and visual capabilities can greatly facilitate making predictions
about the potential effects of light pollution on a given species.
Experiments and anecdotal evidence demonstrate that both temporary and
permanent changes to the illumination of an area may affect frog
reproduction, foraging, predator avoidance, and social interactions.
Laboratory experiments have demonstrated that dark-adapted frogs exposed to
rapid increases in illumination may be temporarily "blinded" and unable
to
gather visual information on prey, predators, or conspecifics until their
eyes adapt to the new illumination. Permanent increases in nocturnal
illumination may facilitate or inhibit a variety of behaviors. Foraging may
be facilitated in frogs that hunt around lights because the ambient
illumination is increased to a level that allows the frogs to see prey or
because lights attract abnormally large quantities of prey (e.g., insects).
Reproductive activity may be inhibited in species that normally reproduce
only at very low illuminations. Increased illumination may allow predators
to see frogs that may not normally be visible to them. Circadian rhythms,
activity patterns, and intraspecific visual communication may also be
affected by increased illumination. Much more field and laboratory research
is necessary to assess the full extent of direct and indirect effects of
artificial night lighting on the behavior, ecology, and evolution of frogs.
The influence of artificial illumination on the behavior and ecology of
nocturnal salamanders
Sharon Wise and Bryant W. Buchanan
Department of Biology, Utica College of Syracuse University
1600 Burrstone Road, Utica, New York 13502, USA
Tel: (315) 792-3356, Fax: (315) 792-3831, Email: swise@utica.ucsu.edu
Little is known of the direct influence of artificial illumination on the
biology of nocturnal salamanders. However, several studies provide evidence
that artificial light may influence some aspects of their behavior and
ecology. In this talk, the role of vision and the influence of light on the
activity patterns, prey detection, predator avoidance, agonistic behavior,
and orientation of salamanders to breeding ponds will be examined.
Nocturnal foraging may be influenced by artificial illumination. In one
species, salamanders emerge from refugia to forage within one hour after
light levels drop dramatically following sunset. During such foraging
bouts, visual information is useful for locating prey. Greater light levels
may delay emergence (resulting in less foraging time) but increase the
ability of salamanders to capture prey. However, such increases in light
levels may also make salamanders more vulnerable to predation. Some
salamanders are territorial and aggressively defend areas containing
valuable resources. Increased illumination may alter the outcome of
territorial contests. Laboratory experiments demonstrate that light levels
affect behavioral interactions between conspecifics such that salamanders
exhibit more visual displays when more light is available. Finally, many
salamanders are terrestrial as adults but migrate to ponds to breed and lay
eggs. The orientation of some species away from and toward these ponds is
influenced by the spectral characteristics of light. Artificial lights that
emit unusual spectra may disrupt these migration patterns. Because many
salamanders are nocturnal and use visual cues for so many different
biological functions, further experimentation on the influence of artificial
illumination on the behavior and ecology of salamanders is warranted.
Lighting problems at Florida¹s oceanic beaches: lessons learned from sea
turtles
Michael Salmon
Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic University
Box 3091, 777 Glades Road, Boca Raton, Florida 33431, USA
Tel: (561) 297-2747, Fax: (561) 297-2749, Email: salmon@fau.edu
Florida¹s beaches are major rookeries for Western Atlantic loggerhead
sea
turtles, and minor rookeries for an increasing population of leatherback and
green turtles. But coastal development in Florida continues unabated,
increasing beach exposure to nocturnal illumination. As a consequence, the
Florida coast has become a laboratory for testing methods designed to
protect the turtles (nesting females and their hatchlings) from
"photopollution." I first review how under natural conditions at night,
females choose nest sites and hatchlings locate the sea from the nest. I
then describe how both females and hatchlings are adversely affected by
exposure to artificial lighting. I next critically evaluate two approaches
to protecting hatchlings at local sites: nest manipulation and lighting
modification. The second approach is more effective, though not always
possible. Finally, I review the design, philosophy, and implementation of
broad-scale plans to restore nesting beaches at the coastal community
(Patrick Air Force Base), county (Broward County), and state (coastal
roadway) levels. I argue that broad-scale planning best protects existing
dark beaches, restores those currently exposed to moderate levels of
lighting, and controls the lighting environment where new development is
anticipated. The beneficiaries are sea turtles and other nocturnally-active
organisms, as well as humans residing in coastal communities.
Artificial night-lighting effects on salmon and other fishes in the
Northwest
Barbara Nightingale and Charles Simenstad
University of Washington, School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences
324A Fishery Sciences, 1122 Boat Street, Box 35502, Seattle, WA 98195-5020,
USA
Email: barbara@biomes.net
Teleost fish reaction to light stimulus depends upon fish physiologic
adaptation to ambient light levels prior to exposure to light level changes.
Laboratory studies examining the use of artificial light to guide juvenile
salmon through migration barriers report measurable differences in fish
responses to variations in the quantity and quality of artificial light.
Studies in the Pacific Northwest report potential changes in fish migration
behavior and the distribution of fishes in night-lighted areas. Such
changes potentially increase mortality risks for salmon, herring, and sand
lance. Juvenile chum and their predators, such as hake, dogfish, sculpin,
large chinook and coho, appear to congregate below night security lights
with increased light intensities attracting the chum and potentially
delaying outmigration; however, predator stomach analyses have not
demonstrated heavy chum consumption in those conditions. In contrast, night
lighting has also been found to attract juvenile herring and sand lance
along with their predators with heavy predation occurring on the herring and
sand lance populations. Predators have also been known to take advantage of
lighting at fish ladders, spillways and bridges to prey on migrating salmon.
The present limited number of in situ studies of artificial night lighting,
coupled with the spatial and temporal limitations of existing studies,
warrants further exploration to identify the extent of fish distribution
changes over time and the real harm posed to these fishes. The potential
changes in species abundance and dominance resulting from increased prey
access under artificial lighting also warrant further exploration.
The behavioral responses of migrating birds to different lighting systems on
tall towers
Sidney A. Gauthreaux, Jr. and Carroll G. Belser
Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University
Clemson, South Carolina 29634-0326, USA
Tel: (864) 656-3584, Email: sagth@clemson.edu
Hundreds of species of birds typically migrate at night, and it well known
that fires and man-made lights attract birds during migration, particularly
when the sky is cloudy and the ceiling is low. As early as 1886, E.A.
Gastman reported that nearly 1,000 migratory birds were killed around
electric light towers in Decatur, Illinois on the evening of 28 September.
Exactly 110 years later a report for World Wildlife Fund Canada and the
Fatal Light Awareness Program details the hazards of lighted structures and
windows to migrating birds. In an effort to understand why birds are
attracted to lights and to assess the influences of different types of
warning light arrays on towers, we examined the behavior of nocturnal
migrants flying near tall towers with different types of lighting. During
spring migration we monitored flight behavior on 9 evenings near a strobe
light FM radio tower and over a control area. During fall migration we
monitored flight behavior on 14 evenings near a television tower with red
lights, near a television tower with white strobe lights, and over a control
area that had no tower. We used an image intensifier to monitor birds
flying overhead, and coded the flight behavior of migrants into the
following categories: linear flight (straight) and nonlinear flight
(pause-hover, curved, or circling). During the spring study, the numbers of
birds showing nonlinear flight near the tower with white strobe lights was
significantly greater than at the control site, but the number of birds
recorded at each site was not significantly different. During the fall
study the number of birds showing nonlinear flight near the tower with red
lighting was significantly greater than those flying near the tower with
white strobes. The number of birds showing nonlinear flight near the tower
with white strobes was significantly greater than those flying over the
control site. Significantly more birds were recorded flying near the tower
with red lights than flying near the tower with white strobes and over the
control site. The number of birds detected flying near the tower with white
strobes did not differ significantly from the number recorded over the
control site. The greater number of birds near the tower with red lights is
likely the result of "attraction" to the constantly illuminated lights
on
towers with red light arrays and the proportion of the time the birds showed
nonlinear flight behavior. While birds in linear flight spend only a brief
instant near the tower and leave the area, birds showing curved, circling,
or hovering behavior spend more time near the tower and thus build
concentrations of migrants in the area. Once concentrations build, the
birds themselves may become collision hazards to other birds.
Artificial lighting and the decline of seabirds
Richard Podolsky
Avian Systems
279 Melvin Heights Road, Camden, Maine 04843, USA
Email: podolsky@att.net
With only a very few exceptions seabirds as a group are in decline
worldwide. Invariably, human activity is the driving force of this global
decline. Artificial lighting is one of a suite of human impacts that
together are contributing to the downward trend in distribution and
abundance of the world¹s 300 species of seabirds. Artificial lighting is
believed to confuse seabirds while they are migrating long and short
distances, especially while they move between urbanized nesting sites to
their feeding grounds at sea. Many seabirds are nocturnal and move between
land and sea at dusk or at night and as such are particularly vulnerable to
artificial lighting. Once they are disoriented they are at risk of
colliding with artificial structures such as buildings and transmission
towers or of falling onto roadways and being run over by vehicles. One of
the more dramatic examples of this is on the island of Kauai where Newell¹s
Shearwater (Puffinus auricularis newellii) and Hawaiian Petrel (Pterodroma
phaeopygia sandwichensis) are estimated conservatively to have declined to a
small fraction of their pre-development levels. A community-wide salvage
program called Save Our Shearwaters (SOS) has done much over the last 30
years to ameliorate this human-induced mortality as has a program to install
shielded lighting around the island. However, these efforts do not appear
to provide a sufficient offset to the mortality to ensure the survival of
these two endemic Hawaiian seabirds.
Road illumination and black-tailed godwit
J.G. de Molenaar, D.A. Jonkers and M.E. Sanders
Alterra, research institute for the green environment
P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
Tel: +(31) 317-47-77-31, Fax: +(31) 317-41-90-00, Email:
j.g.demolenaar@alterra.wag-ur.nl
Black-tailed godwit (Limosa l. limosa) is an indicator species for the
birdlife of open grassland in The Netherlands. The influence of road lights
on the breeding population of this bird was studied in an area adjacent to a
busy motorway. We compared one year, when the road lights were switched
off, with the next year, when the lights were switched on. In a nearby
second area, out of reach of influence of the traffic on the motorway, there
were no lights in the first year. Early the next year 24 lights were
installed. These were identical to the lights along the motorway and
switched on and off simultaneously with them. All grassland parcels were
individually characterized to eliminate field conditions that may influence
the birds¹ nest choice. We then established the position of the nests,
their distance to the motorway and to the temporary illumination, the
measures of the eggs, and the date of laying of the first egg. The results
reveal that road illumination has a statistically significant negative
influence on the breeding habitat quality, reaching over several hundreds of
meters. It is likely that the effect is suppressed by the nest fidelity of
the birds, suggesting that the ultimate effect distance will be considerably
larger. Moreover, birds that breed early seemed to choose their nest
further away from the lights than birds that start later. A negative
influence of the motorway (traffic noise) seemed to be absent. Apparently
it can be compensated by favorable site factors. That the negative
influence of illumination is not compensated suggests that this is stronger
than the influence of the road.
Turning night into day: the effects of artificial night lighting on
endangered and other mammal species
Melissa M. Grigione
Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of South Florida
4202 E. Fowler Avenue, SCA 238, Tampa, Florida 33620, USA
Tel: (813) 974-7459, Fax: (813) 974-2184, Email: mgrigion@chuma1.cas.usf.edu
This presentation will review the major studies designed to measure the
effects of artificial lighting on mammals in the field and laboratory. The
consequences of artificial lighting include general disruptions in daily
activity cycles, and reductions in dispersal, foraging, and reproductive
opportunities. Secondary effects on prey species, offspring rearing, and
habitat reductions as a result of flooding habitat with lights are largely
unexplored. In general, the research effort in this area needs to be
further developed and pursued. As habitat continues to be fragmented by
roads and other developments, the effects of artificial lighting will be
exacerbated. Many species could potentially receive additional protection
from habitat alterations, such as lights, if a substantial literature base
existed. To demonstrate this point, a case study involving the protection
of endangered ocelots in Texas from large floodlights installed at the
US-Mexico border will be reviewed. This case study will demonstrate how
difficult it is politically to protect a species from artificial lights in
the absence of either a significant body of research about the effects of
lights on mammals or a detailed study on the specific effects of lights on
ocelots. Lastly, we will make recommendations about future studies that
need to be undertaken in order to clearly demonstrate the effects of turning
night into day for mammal species.