Species-Specific Management (SSM)

The Bald Eagle

Because the bald eagle represents the many values and goals of the Nation, it is considered by many people to be more than just a species. To the Indians, 12 eagle feathers were once said to be worth 1 horse. The greatest single reason to manage for bald eagles is to protect them form such human disturbances as habitat destruction, unlawful shooting and trapping, and persistent pesticide use. Management plans need to take into account regional differences in habitat and land-use patterns.

Breeding Habitat

1. When preparing to nest, eagles seem to be selecting for suitable forest structure, low human disturbances, and high diversity or accessibility to prey species. In general, nest sites are associated positively with super-dominant trees and negatively with areas of timber harvest.
2. Suitable forest structure includes a preference for snags and dead and broken-top live trees. Nest trees tend to be large, open in structure, and slightly taller than the surrounding canopy.
3. Due to high food demands during the breeding season, proximity to a food source appears to be the most important criterion for nest-site selection and ultimately nesting success.
4. Nesting habitat needs to be protected to ensure species success.
5. Each nest should be treated as an individual case with an individual management plan needed.
6. Suggest a minimum primary zone of approximately 1980 feet (600 m) around breeding pairs. Deny public access to primary zones during nesting seasons when eagles are most sensitive to disturbance. The public needs to informed of reason for denial of access and the effects of their disturbances.
7. Suggest a secondary buffer zone of 3960 feet (1200 m) to accommodate most of the distant responses from vehicle, noise, and aircraft disturbance.
8. With nest sites on private land, cooperation between the government (state or federal) and the land owner is needed to develop and implement management plans.
9. Someone with expertise in eagle biology should be available to work with the developer or land owner to examine impacts of activity on a particular nest.
10. Timber harvesting should be prohibited during the breeding season, and no logging in the primary zone of the nest should be permitted.

Wintering Habitat

1. When selecting wintering habitat, bald eagles seem to consider a consistent food source, past usage (eagles are creatures of habit), presence of suitable perches, and protection from elements and people. In general, these are areas associated with major river systems.
2. Four categories of perch sites are: night roosts, diurnal loafing, foraging, and feeding.
3. Perch trees can be created or improved by thinning to leave dominant trees of suitable height, crown structure, and accessibility. Thinning encourages rapid upward growth and proper crown form (open canopy branching).
4. Specific management suggestions to improve perch habitat: sites should a) be associated with openings greater than 8.75 acres (3.5 ha) in size; b) be within 1.8 miles (3 km) of shorelines used intensively be eagles; c) have a density of 62.5-250 stems per acre (25-200 stems/ha); d) consist of open-crowned trees greater than 16 inches (40 cm) dbh; and e) have trees spaced to maximize crown accessibility, but not at the expense of removing mature trees greater than 20 inches (50 cm) diameter breast height.

General Management Suggestions

1. Reduce use of persistent poisons.
2. Identify and protect critical habitat from changes in land-use and human activities.
3. Law enforcement and public education to strengthen protection against harassment and killing.
4. Boost populations through transferring young and eggs, conducting captive breeding, and improving habitat.
5. Use eagles of bioindicators of environmental quality.
6. Establish programs stocking streams, lakes, and reservoirs with fish.
7. Support programs maintaining the highest practical level of waterfowl.
8. Expand aquatic habitat.
9. Gain public support of nongame species programs.
10. Promote inventories of populations and studies on wintering needs.
11. Map individual nest sites and provide zone protection.
12. Correct powerline electrocution problem.
13. Set aside more land to prevent further commercial and urban development.
14. Prevent or contain wildlife diseases having possible transmission.
15. Promote recreational eagle watching, remembering that they are sensitive to intrusion during the breeding season and are more tolerant on the wintering grounds. Erect blinds for closer viewing. Supervise to keep people from passing the distance limit beyond which eagles are intolerant. Organize tours and speakers.
16. Manage human activities first.
17. If nesting requirements cannot be met naturally, then human-made nest platforms can be provided in ideal locations.
18. Though it is not recommended to use dams in all situations, they provide year-round open water and a weakened food supply.

Effective and appropriate management results from a mix of basic research, practical field experience, enlightened administrative practices, and positive public response or acceptance.

Contributions by Dawn M. Richmond and Christine M. Long (1993) Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0321,with review and additions by Dr. James D. Fraser, July 1993

See US Fish and Wildlife Service guidelines related to endangered species.

This Web site is maintained by R. H. Giles, Jr.
Last revision January 17, 2000.