| A unit of Lasting Forests
evolving since March 30, 1999 |
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A Total Forest Management Plan
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We are engaged in superior forestry. There is nothing bad about the way we work but we do know that some people think that a forest after a tree (or trees) has been cut is ugly. We know that. Sociological work indicates that foresters, environmentalists, tree farmers, and non-forestry undergraduate students view the esthetics of various forestry (silvicultural) practices similarly. These groups seem to differ in the degree to which they like or dislike a particular practice. The differences, however, can be profound. They are a real condition and a problem, but we have a strategy to help reduce, perhaps solve, the problem. A peculiar phenomenon exists: it is easier to specify what is wrong within a scene than what is right with it. Beauty is an intangible, and that, by its very definition, implies difficulty in measurement.
People intuitively know that scenic beauty is desirable, special, and needs attention. They are often concerned about the quality of their environment including the scenic and spiritual values of the land. They may rightly be concerned about the amount of wild land since once-plentiful natural-appearing landscapes are becoming more scarce. High quality scenery, especially that related to natural appearing forests, enhances peoples' lives and benefits society in general. It directly affects peoples' physiological and psychological well-being.
Our analyses of many studies (some 167 assembled by Arthur and Boster (1976) and 67 annotated ones by Murtha and Greco (1975), 200 noted by Benson et al. (1985) and many more since) show that good appearance, the perceived forest, is related to:
The strategy within Lasting Forests is to retain or improve scenic beauty within the forest and surrounding area typically is as follows:
1. The observer is informed and educated about the meaning or what he/she sees. Many things are relative and some people see nothing that is unexpected in some forest conditions.
Parr (1970) observed:
"Other things permitted, the individual will choose his surroundings according to the preferences and demands of his own personality. When he exercises his choice, there will unavoidably be a feedback from his selection to the psychological mechanism that made it. This implies two-way relationship between mind and milieu in which the environment might well prove to be a determinant, as well as a product, of attitude and personality."
2. The observers are kept in small groups. One person loudly expressing disfavor with a scene can shape the opinions of others. Observers unknowingly receive incentives and rewards from liking or finding beauty (or the lack of it) that is consistent with the group.
3. The location of the observer is key. The following things may be adjusted:
5. The condition of the area with careful planning and conferences
6. Use before/after photographs; training sessions; repeat visits to the same area; TV tape paired comparisons on the same screen; promote management activities before they are begun; show likely visual effects (computer simulation) before operations start (McDonald 1994).
7. Use questionnaires partially to monitor, partially to educate people about the questions that are relevant. Report the costs and benefits of managing the beauty of the forest, including the expected financial gains from strategy 4 above, and the reduced risks of litigation and negative public relations and adverse advertising.
8. Develop a pleasant name for each tract, including phrases such as the Forest Reservation, the Certified Forest, etc. Being within Lasting Forests will assist. People expect different standards of beauty based on the name and administration of the forests (and assign different weights based on the label.)
Lasting Forests has under development or design several important subsystems (operational code is not yet available):
The SBI or Scenic Beauty Index - A large area, county-level or river-basin level analysis of scenic beauty with a computer produced score. The Index is obtained by an analyst or local group of trained observers (the assessment team). About 30 points are visited and numerical scores are assigned to recognized elements of scenic beauty. The score can be used to establish baseline conditions, judge changing beauty, estimate the change in score that would result from a development (e.g., factory, road, powerline), and contribute to impact analyses or mitigation of expected impacts.
The SBI is unique. It separates scenic beauty for a region into 12 factors and has an observer make observations about each of these factors. They are entered into a computer, given non-linear weights, and synthesized to produce the index. The components analyzed at each of about 30 stops around a region are:
Magill and Twiss (1965) indicated the importance of permanent picture points as did Litton (1973). We use a permanent set of vantage points or observer positions. Visual acuity seems important to quantify as well as atmospheric conditions on the days of observation to develop adjustments. The monthly visibility (e.g., 80% of the time in Jan. the visibility is greater that 5.8 mi (5 nmi)).
Elsner (1976) had proposed that all landscape descriptors be classed as one of four dimensions: form (e.g., landform, vegetation pattern, and waterform), line, color, and texture. He proceeded to suggest that landform has dimensions of elevation, slope, ridgeline, relative and absolute relief, ruggedness, enclosure, and aspect. We have learned from his approach. Wohlwill(1979) used a rating scale of "appropriateness" and Shearer (1971) showed the usefulness of integrating factor weight or ratings.
Key concepts of the composition and criteria of excellence of the visual environment being addressed include: diversity, balance, perspective, proportion, harmony, unity, contrast, form, and texture. Anderson (1980) reported that about half of perceived scenic quality is related to forest characteristics of tree density and distribution, volumes of downed wood, vegetative ground cover, and the extent of insect damage. Miller (1984) reported on a successful system for explaining or predicting landscape preference but not the causal factors. In our SBI system we seek merely strong, reasonable relations, and await the work of others on causation.
Scenic Analyses and Viewscape Maps - Using GIS, opportunities are being developed to study areas seen from points, roads and trails, and from areas. Similar analyses are available to study points lines and areas from which a point, line or area may be seen. Optimum site selection is possible (minimum or maximum views).
Lasting Forests staff , under contract, will classify and map areas with the system used by the U. S. Forest Service. There are 5 such classes known as the VQOs or Visual Quality Objectives. These include
Preservation - natural landscapes where only ecological changes occur; tree covered; mostly old-growth; advanced succession; often wilderness and natural areas.
Retention - natural-appearing landscapes that seem unmanaged; practices such as vegetative management occur to protect or enhance the visual quality; most stream corridors; natural colors, bark, large trees, even scattered openings.
Partial Retention - areas where land management is active and seen but do not attract attention of the forest users; vegetative management is evident but in harmony with the natural-appearing environment; openings, waterholes may be present; intermixed type stands of various sizes and shapes; minor recreation areas, scenic road corridors, trails.
Modification - management activities dominate the landscape and attract attention; plantations, temporary and permanent roads; utility corridors; tracts significantly modified by human activity.
Unacceptable Modification - not related to the natural character of the land; major utility corridors and roads; structures. All of the above may be classified for area and proportions within each category. A pie-chart provides a helpful presentation of the results. A Naturalness score (presumably correlated with visual quality) is available after such land classification and can be used to express changes resulting from shifting land from one category due to timber harvest, development, or other activity. Notably, the score changes naturally with time (tree growth and ecological succession) and may readily be graphed as did Methuen (1974) and Daniel and Boster (1976). Palmer (1990) wrote of change over time in esthetics of harvest areas.
Schweitzer et al. (1976) noted that studies confirmed intuition: forest scenes "... are generally liked less as the evidence of man's activities increases."
Management activities typically impinge least on the esthetic resources of the forest when they "blend in" in terms of form, line, color, texture, and scale. The above categories each describe "... a different degree of acceptable alteration of the natural landscape based upon the importance of esthetics. The degree of alteration is measured in terms of visual contract with the surrounding natural landscape." The National Forest Management Act required inventory and evaluation of visual resources. Considering visual quality is now given equal status under the law with considering economic, social, and environmental issues.Various units are measures such as variety class, sensitivity level, and distance zones and these can be mapped but these require intensive work by experts and efficient mapping systems such as described above under GIS scenic analyses. Fault has been found in the differences between the categories, especially that between Preservation and Retention, suggesting an intermediate category devoted to long-term, low impact management for esthetic and recreational purposes (trails, nature paths, vistas). In the Modification category, no esthetic constraints or guidelines are involved.
Answers to why leaves change color? may be available but it needs to be explained and made part of the outdoor experience, both the answer and the question. Perhaps the results is more important than the cause. Many links to leaf color are also found with Trevey notes on trees.
See also Solid Homes, Lasting Forests Views , Signs, and consider exploring the relations with Realtors. We hypothesize that the expected benefits from managing beauty (primarily ecological and land-value) in several local forests will significantly exceed the expected costs of such action and directly-related, public-relations investments and counter-litigation.
Literature Cited
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Last revision May 11, 2004.