| A unit of Lasting Forests
evolving since March 30, 1999 |
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A Total Forest Management Plan
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I'm still afraid of the dark ... and there's so much of it.
Character in "Philly" (TV, October, 2001)
This is the satellite picture taken of the world from the new space station. It is the result of the email that was sent around last November (2001) which notified people all over the world to hold a beacon of light into the night sky.The image is a night photo with the lights clearly indicating the populated areas.
You can scroll East-West and North-South.
Note that Canada's population is almost exclusively along the U.S. border. Moving east to Europe, there is a high population concentration along the Mediterranean Coast. It's easy to spot London, Paris, Stockholm and Vienna. Check out the development of Israel compared to that of the Arab countries. Note the Nile River and the rest of the "Dark Continent." After the Nile, the lights don't come on again until Johannesburg. Look at the Australian Outback and the Trans-Siberian Rail Route. Moving east, the most striking observation is the difference between North and South Korea. Note the density of Japan.
This is an absolutely awesome picture of the Earth taken from the Boeing built Space Station last November on a perfect night with no obscuring atmospheric conditions.
Wildland managers do not know much about lunar forces, but who among them can risk knowing much, given the negative connotations of lunatic.>
The Earth as seen from space at night is amazing. Night Earthlights may affect migration and other faunal phenomena. The perspective from outerspace may be useful.
The gravitational attraction of the Moon and the Sun on the Earth's oceans causes the ocean tides to move in and out (from high to low). Because the Moon is nearer to Earth than the Sun is, it has a bigger effect on the Earth's oceans.
The Moon's diameter is about 3,480 km (about 2,160 mi)--about one-fourth of the Earth's diameter.
Hypothesis: The moon is very influential within ecosystems. Of course it is not as important as the sun and probably many other factors (depending on the organism being studied.)
Hypothesis: If the moon's forces were better understood, then they could be used as independent factors or variables in developing explanatory and predictive models.
A usual situation in the field is to develop an equation that has some good predictive ability (say it may explain 60 to 70 percent of the variance) and then managers are forced to say there were other factors involved.
Just maybe another factor was the moon...?!
A working resource expert, it seems to me, should not neglect an evident factor and seek other minute and unknown factors. Fame may come with such discoveries, but fame is a long shot.
It seems unwise to to accept variance as natural...as if wed to probabilism, as if giving up all together to determinism. Variance, itself, may not be a natural phenomenon; maybe it is only what we see and call "variance." There is no need to treat variance as mystical. It seems to me that big chunks can be removed from the variability in most systems by including within models explanatory variables. At least lunar forces, clearly cyclic and "non-linear" can be re-studied with new analytical tools and the linear assumption in past analyses dropped. Perhaps the moon, one of the variables of Lasting Forests and other ecosystems, can be included in future models.
The moon is typically listed among the abiotic factors of the environment.
This unit is preliminary and exploratory...an invitation to think about and perhaps investigate some of the possible lunar forces. It merely attempts to share some preliminary observations and ideas and invite involvement in further work to create the models useful in adding information on lunar forces rapidly and conveniently into The Trevey. There is a need to clarify the role of the moon in ecosystems. The working hypothesis is that there are several lunar forces and that they have profound effects in several parts of the forest and, when involved together, they may be massive. If we can isolate and measure accurately the forces, we may be able to gain substantial statistical control over variance in several parts of the ecosystem. At least the notes here may enhance the wildland manager's and landowner's awareness of and appreciation for another of the many wonders of the Lasting Forests environment.
There are plenty of biological correlatives with the moon, suggesting, partially by the diversity, that there is something at work in the ecosystem that is quite profound.
For example:
Moon phase is only one observed phenomenon of the moon. I prefer and suggest discussing "lunar forces "; for there are many. It also happens, as elsewhere in ecology, that the moon does not act alone. Some phenomena are moon and solar pairs.
On Sun, 29 Aug 1999 09:53:15 -0400 Kenneth J. Stein sent information on , a site giving solar and lunar data.
Also PC software of the U.S. Naval Observatory's Multiyear Interactive Computer Almanac.
Consider: Make a GIS map of the time between moon rise and moon set x %of the full moon phase illuminating the forest.
Later revise it to account for aspect differences.
Most animals are night-users. Lunar forces (moonlight, etc.)are probably at least as important for mammals as any day light. Insects are well known to be related, thus the food supply of bats and night foragers. Graham Martin has written Birds by Night (Academic Press, 1990; 240pp.ISBN:0-85661-059-3). The lunar forces map may become the key to controlling some variance in animal studies such as trap response.
Dr.Huber (Ohio State U PhD.(about 1963) tried to study it once as I recall. (He found no relationship because he was only looking at "phase" as related to trap success.)
More notes to be added later. A Basic program (relating to lunar forces)CAP147 (2-27-98) is available with my programs in Gamma.
Needed measurement of "forces":
The moon is not one ecological factor. There are many moon-related factors and these need to be studied, some rejected, and those having relevance included in ecological studies as "constants" or things over which the manager has little control.The manager may not be able to change the Moon but he or she can use knowledge of it to explain the difference observed in areas, in animal behavior, and to move or acquire areas that have desirable conditions.
The ability to compute a value for all of the above parameters is not yet available. A program may someday exist that, given relevant times and locations, values can be produced.
" Despite many prevalent superstitious beliefs, the moon has no proven effect on day-to-day weather, the growth of crops, or many other fanciful representations ascribed to it." (F.J. Wood 1957). However, many farmers hold to: For good above-ground crops, plant with the Full Moon; for good root crops, plant with the dark of the moon.
The rotation time of Earth around the Sun is 23 hours and 56 minutes.
One type of rotation period of the Moon around Earth is the sidereal month which takes 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, and 11.5 seconds.
The synodic month is the rotation period of the Moon around Earth in relation to the Sun is 29 days, 12 hours, and 44 minutes.
The Moon, as viewed from Virginia, rises in the East and seems to move to the West.
Each day the moon moves about 12 degrees (360/29.53.) One lunar day is 29.53 Earth days. The extra 12 degrees takes about 51 minutes. That is, it rises an average of about 51 minutes later in each day of the cycle. The full moon rises as the sun sets. The full moon occurs when the Moon is on the opposite side of the Earth, most distant from the sun and fully illuminated.
The Full Moon nearest the autumnal equinox(Sept 23) (and nearest Earth)is called the harvest moon, the next one the hunter's moon. The Harvest Moon gives the ecosystem extra hours of light.
The New Moon rises as the sun comes up. It can be seen in the western sky after sundown. It occurs when the Moon is on line between the Sun and Earth.
The third-quarter Moon rises at noon and is overhead at sunset.
The Moon orbits Earth once a month at 2300mph. The Moon moves in an ellipse, moving faster when closer to the Earth, slower when farther away.
The average distance from Earth is 238,856 miles.The least distance is 225,742; the greatest is 251,968 miles.
Ocean and Earth tides are on a general 6 hour cycle. Water rises for 6 hours, reaches high tide, then falls for 6 hours to low tide, then begins the cycle again. The difference between high and low tide is called the range.Tides occur in water wells and probably elsewhere in nature. Much less conspicuous and attenuated by geological friction, they still occur. It may be that forest spring seeps and springs (and their animal life (e.g., crayfish) are affected by these tides. If so, it is likely that predators respond to prey behavior at such times, thus making them more (or less) likely to respond to trap or other baits.
One of the likely effects may be secondary. The primary effect is believed to be on insects and other invertebrates but secondary effects are on insect-eating birds and other animals.
Equivalent sites can be compared or sites standardized to allow meaningful comparisons and gain new insights into differences among areas.
"What a difference a day makes" may be a statement of the effects of a moon change. Every night is not the same, even if the same clocktime between sun set and sunup.
Night is the profound cover and cover can vary depending on the lunar forces.
Telfer et al. (1987) described young seabirds, disoriented around bright lights, crashing into buildings, wires, etc. They correlated some losses with the phase of the moon. It was the most important factor affecting the daily bird "fallout rates." As part of "phase" they included light intensity (Fielder 1961). When intensity was high, fallout was low (4 nights around Full Moon, implying a threshold of the effect of intensity). Fallout was heavy during "...the dark period near the New Moon." It would seem that during breeding periods (a condition) fallout (F) could be developed as a function of light intensity (Z) as:
F = a + bZc.
Telfer et al. (1987:409) observed that the light intensity during Full Moon was 10 times as bright as the first- or last quarter moon. They also observed (without measurement) that the moonlight intensity curves "do not take into account when the Moon is above the horizon." Moonlight is an intensity per-unit-area-per-unit-time measure and with a duration or cumulative parameter. They said that "the last-quarter moon rises after midnight and sets after sunrise, leaving the first part of the evening without moonlight. Because we have observed that most Newell's Shearwaters [Puffinus auricularis newell] fledge between 1 and 4 hours after sunset, fledgling birds would not even see the waning crescent until they were far out to sea."
Studies conducted on lunar forces are hidden within other documents, and negative results (for some of the reasons mentioned) are likely not reported. Assistance in locating such studies will be appreciated. You are encouraged to undertake such studies (and re-analyze old studies) yourself. The abiotic dimensions of the environment seem to be a fruitful area of study for they are likely to control major aspects of the life of populations of plants and animals.
Literature and Resources
Telfer, T.C., J.L. Sincock, G.V. Byrd, and J.R. Reed. 1987. Attraction of Hawaiian seabirds to lights: conservation efforts and effects of moonphase. Wildl. Soc. Bull 15: 406-413.
Buss, I.O., and F.H. Harbert. 1950. Relations of moonphases to the occurrence of mule deer at a Washington salt lick. J. Mammal. 31(4):426-429.
Drake, S. 1983. Telescopes, tides and tactics. A Gailean dialog about the Starry Messenger and systems of the world. U. Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill 236pp.
Observer's handbook, Royal Astronomical Soc. of Canada, 136 Dupont Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5R 1V2 200pp($14)
Guy Ottewell. Astronomical Calendar ($15) Astronomical Workshop, Furman, Univ., Greenville, SC 29613
Sky calendar, Abrams Planetarium, Mich State Univ., East Lansing, MI 48824
Meeus, Jean 1983. Astronomical tables of the sun, moon, and planets. Willmann-Bell, Richmond, VA
Rukl, Antonin.1991. Atlas of the moon. Hamlyn, London (76 charts)
The Dark Side of Light Audubon 102(2): 92-97.
http://www.badastronomy.com/bad/misc/tides.html - Link the courtesy of Brad Rimbey
An email message received in Feb. 2000, suggesting continued interest in night lighting effects:
Greetings all:
Nightime illumination has been bantered about as being bad for T&E species. Apparently due in part to perceptions that nocturnal predators may get an "unfair advantag" from the illumination; or perhaps that some species may get their activity patterns confused if moon phase is "saturated" by lighting or ????
Can anyone point me toward real studies, reports, papers, etc. that address the effects of night illumination on wildlife? I would like to get beyond the speculation phase.
Please respond to me directly, not the list. If I get some good info I will summarize it and post it to the list. Thanks in advance!
Bill Berry,
Wildlife Biologist,
Wildlife Management Branch Head
For information on light pollution, though not too much on its effects on wildlife, try the web site of the International Dark-Sky Association -Joe Orr
One well acknowledged effect of night lighting is the change in behavioral patterns of birds, which often prevents successful nesting in the vicinity of the light pool. I'm sorry that I don't have any literature citations for this, but a quick database scan on any college library search site on the web might get these for you.Luke Nemeth
Date: Thu, 10 Feb 2000 09:56:35 -1000
From: David Duffy
Subject: Re: outdoor night lights affects on wildlife
If you live near sea turtle nesting areas, or in Hawaii, there is an abundance of literature on harmful effects.
In a message dated 00-02-09 22:03:52 EST, bobmcdonld@WORLDNET.ATT.NET writes: I would like to write to the editor of the local newspaper educating these new neighbors on the affects of these lights on wildlife, but I can't seem to find any articles pertaining to this subject. I'd appreciate any information you might know of on the detriments of outdoor night lighting on wildlife.
Is this another example of not liking something, assuming an adverse effect,
and then looking for information to support that pre-determined position?
Granted, there may be an adverse effect. However, if there isn't, are we
going to write a letter to the editor saying so?
Warren Aney
Senior Wildlife Ecologist
Dr. David Duffy, Professor of Botany/Unit Leader, Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit (PCSU), Department of Botany, University of Hawai'i, Manoa, 3190 Maile Way St. John 410, Honolulu, HI 96822-2279, phone: (808) 956-8218, fax: (808) 973-2936; (808) 956-3923 (backup), internet: dduffy@hawaii.edu
A literature list was supplied by Waldon Light Effects on Wildlife References
Last Update: 2/18/00
Backhurst, G. C. and D. J. Pearson. December 1977. Ethiopian Region Birds Attracted to the Lights of Ngulia Safari Lodge, Kenya. Scopus; 1(4): 98-103. WR 179.
Beier, P. 1995. Dispersal of juvenile cougars in fragmented habitats. J. of Wildl. Manage. 59(2):228-237.
Bruderer, B., D. Peter, and T. Steuri. May 1999. Behavior of Migrating Birds Exposed to X-band Radar and a Bright Light Beam. Journal of Experimental Biology 202:(9) 1015-1022.
Callahan, P.S. 1964. An inexpensive actinometer for continuous field recording of moonlight, daylight, or low intensity evening light. J. Economic Entomology. 57(5): 758-760.
Cochran, Wm. W. and Richard R. Graber. 1958. Attraction of Nocturnal Migrants by Lights on a Television Tower. Wilson Bulletin 70(4): 378-380.
Dice, L.R. 1945. Minimum intensities of illumination under which owls may find dead prey by sight. Amer. Naturalist 79: 385-416
Dumke, R. T. and C. M. Pils. 1968. Statewide Wildlife Research: Causes of Pheasant Mortality. WIS. Conservation Dept.; 15P. Project Number: WIS, W-141-R- 03/WK.PL.03/JOB B.
Fedun, Irene. Fatal Light Attraction. 1995. Journal of Wildlife Rehabilitation 18(3): 10- 11.
Gladgelter, Harold Lee. 1966. Nocturnal Behavior of White-tailed Deer in the Hatter Creek Enclosure. M.S. thesis, University of Idaho; 63p. WR 231. Project Number: Idaho Cooperative Wildlife Research; IDA. W-085-R-17/JOB 09-PT 1.
Humphrey-Smith, I. 1982. Survival of Captive Microchiroptera Feeding on Prey Attracted to Artifical Lights. The Management of Australian Mammals in Captivity, D. D. Evans, editor; p. 164-171. WR 199.
Laughrin. L. 1970. Special Wildlife Investigations: San Joaquin Kit Fox, Its Distribution and Abundance. CAL. Dept. of Fish and Game; 20P. REF., MAPS. Project Number: CAL. W-054-R-01/SP.
Nikolaus, G. 1980. An Experiment to Attract Migrating Birds with Car Headlights in the Chyulu Hills, Kenya. Scopus; 4(2): 45-46. WR 181.
Nikolaus, G. and D.J. Pearson. 1983. Attraction of Nocturnal Migrants to Car Headlights in the Sudan Red Sea Hills. Scopus; 7(1): 19-20. WR 190.
Reed, Jonathan R. 1985. Seabird Vison: Spectral Sensivity and Light Attraction Behavior. Ph. D. dissertation, University Wisconsin (Madison); 200p. From Diss. Abstr. Int. B. Sci. Eng. 47(4): 1452. WR 204.
Reed, Jonathan R. 1987. Polatizing Filters Fail to Reduce Light Attraction in Newell's Shearwaters. Wildlife Society Bulletin 15(4): 596-598. WR 208.
Reed, Jonathan R., John L. Sincock, and Jack P. Hailman. 1985. Light Attraction in Endangered Procellariform Birds: Reduction by Shielding Upwardradiation. Auk; 102(2): 377-383. WR 198. Patuxent WRC Cooperative Agreement No. 14-16-0009-80-1023 with the U. Wisconsin.
Rohrbaugh, Ronald W., Jr., and Richard H. Yahner. 1997. Effects of Macrohabitat and Microhabitat on Nest-box Use and Nesting Success of American Kestrels. Wilson Bulletin 109(3): 410-423.
Telfer, Thomas C., John L. Sincock, G. Vernon Byrd, and Jonathan R. Reed. 1987. Attraction of Hawaiian Seabirds to Lights: Conservation Efforts and Effects of Moon Phase. Wildlife Society Bulletin 15(3): 406-413. WR 207. Project Number: HI W-018-R/Job R-VI-A.
Welch, D. February 1998. Air Issues and Ecosystem Protection, A Canadian National Parks Perspective. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 49:(2-3) 251-262.
Witherington, Blair E., and Martin R. Erik. 1996. Understanding, Assessing, and Resolving Light-Pollution Problem on Sea Turtle Nesting Beaches. Florida Marine Research Institute, Technical Reports 0(2) I-IV, 1-73.
Yakobi, V. E. February 1978. Do the Plane Landing Lights Attract or Scare Headlights at Night? Zool. Zh; 57(2): 304-306. In Russian with English Summaries. WR 175.
Supplied by the Conservation Management Institute: fwie.fw.vt.edu 2/18/2000 Assistant Chief of Staff, Environmental Security Wildlife Management Branch Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton, CA 92055-5008 (760) 725-9729 Voice (760) 725-9720 FAX DSN 365-9729 e-mail: BerryWH@mail.cpp.usmc.mil
Adamany, S. L., M. Salmon, et al. (1997).Behavior of sea turtles at an urban beach: III. Costs and benefits of nest caging as a management strategy. Florida Scientist 60(4): 239 - 253.
At a sea turtle nesting beach in Boca Raton, Florida, all nests are covered with a wire cage to protect the eggs from beach traffic and predators. The front panel of the cage (facing the ocean) is of larger mesh that allows hatchlings to escape. In this study we determined if cages impede hatchling migration. No effect was apparent at dark beach sites but at illuminated beach areas, hatchlings crawled toward lights behind the beach rather than toward the ocean, and were trapped within the cage. Trapped turtles eventually escaped, either later that evening (as lighting was reduced toward midnight) or at dawn (as natural levels of background illumination increased). However at night, enough lighting remained to attract turtles after they left the cage. At dawn, escaped hatchlings crawled to the sea but were probably vulnerable to visual predators. We conclude that at urban sites exposed to luminaires, cage use compromises hatchling survival. Thus at urban rookeries, caging is only effective if coupled with efforts to eliminate beach-front lighting.
Beier, P. 1995. Dispersal of juvenile cougars in fragmented habitat. Journal of Wildlife Management 59(2): 228 to 237.
There is little information on the spatiotemporal pattern of dispersal of juvenile cougars (Felis concolor) and no data on disperser use of habitat corridors. I investigated dispersal of radio-tagged juvenile cougars (8 M, 1 F) in a California landscape containing 3 corridors (1.5, 4.0, and 6.0 km long) and several habitat peninsulas created by urban growth. Dispersal was usually initiated by the mother abandoning the cub near an edge of her home range. The cub stayed within 300 m of that site for 13-19 days and then dispersed in the direction opposite that taken by the mother. Mean age at dispersal was 18 months (range 13-21 months). Each disperser traveled from its natal range to the farthest part of the urban-wildland edge. Dispersing males occupied a series of small ( lt 30% the area used by ad M in the same time span), temporary (10-298 days) home ranges, usually near the urban-wildland interface, and often with its longest border along that edge. Each of the 3 corridors was used by 1-3 dispersers, 5 of the 9 dispersers found and successfully used corridors, and 2 dispersers entered but failed to traverse corridors. Dispersing cougars will use corridors that are located along natural travel routes, have ample woody cover, include an under-pass integrated with roadside fencing at high-speed road crossings, lack artificial outdoor lighting, and have lt 1 dwelling unit/16 ha.
Bergen, F. and M. Abs (1997). Etho-ecological study of the singing activity of the blue tit (Parus caeruleus), great tit (Parus major) and chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs). Journal fuer Ornithologie 138(4): 451 to 467.
The main objective of this study was to determine the extent of influence that a large city's ecological conditions have on the singing behaviour of urbanised birds. The singing activity of selected bird species was examined using the "animal focus sampling" method. The observations were carried out from the beginning of March to the beginning of June 1995 in a 10 ha inner city park, the Westpark (WP) in Dortmund (NRW, Germany). An area of equal size in a forest south of Dortmund, the Niederhofer Wald (NW) was chosen as a control area. In the Westpark the Blue Tit, Great Tit and Chaffinch started to sing significantly earlier in the morning than in the control area. This difference could be due to the artificial lighting of the park at night as well as the noise of traffic. There was no difference in the three species' singing activities between the two areas, but there were differences in the temporal pattern of the Chaffinch's morning singing activity in comparison of the two areas. In the Niederhofer Wald the Chaffinch was almost equally active at all times whereas it showed a pattern similar to the Tit's "dawn chorus" in the Westpark. Food supply, distribution and predictability within the two areas are discussed as causes for this difference. However, the negative correlation between singing activity and the frequency of pedestrians crossing the birds' territories may also play a role. In the Westpark, a correlation between the Chaffinch's singing activity and the frequency of passing pedestrians was noted. The more people crossed the focus animal's territory, the less its singing activity and the more frequently "pinks" occurred. Thus, pedestrians do indeed disturb the Chaffinch which reacts with a change of singing behaviour.
Moreira et al. 2003 Functional Ecology, 17:573-581 reported isotopic studies showing 30-70% of the total water uptake by tap roots occurred during the night in a tropical area. The may be due to high nocturnal transpiration demand is low.
Borg, V. (1996). Death of the night. Geographical Magazine. 68: 56.
Night light pollution is becoming an increasingly important environmental problem as well as an impediment to people enjoying the panorama offered by the stars. Certain animals, such as sea turtles in the Mediterranean and migratory birds that fly by night, are disturbed in their reproductive and migratory habits by the excess light being given off by lit towns and cities. The answer is to cap night lights to reduce the glare that is given off into the sky.
Buchanan, B. W. 1993. Effects of enhanced lighting on the behaviour of nocturnal frogs. Animal Behaviour 45(5): 893 to 899.
Biologists studying anuran amphibians usually assume that artificial, visible light does not affect the behaviour of nocturnal frogs. This assumption was tested in a laboratory experiment. The foraging behaviour of grey treefrogs, Hyla chrysoscelis, was compared under four lighting conditions: ambient light (equivalent to bright moonlight, 0.003 lx), red-filtered light (4.1 lx), low-intensity 'white' light (3.8 lx), and high-intensity 'white' light (12.0 lx). The treatments were chosen to correspond to standard methods of field observation of frog behaviour. The foraging behaviour of frogs in the four treatments was observed using infra-red light that was invisible to the frogs. The ability of the frogs to detect, and subsequently consume prey was significantly reduced under all of the enhanced light treatments relative to the ambient light treatment. Thus, the use of artificial light, within the visible spectrum of the frog's eyes, can influence the outcome of nocturnal behavioural observations. These results lead to the recommendation that anuran biologists use infra-red or light amplification devices when changes in frogs' visual capabilities may influence the conclusions drawn from a study.
Contor, C. R. and J. S. Griffith (1995). Nocturnal emergence of juvenile rainbow trout from winter concealment relative to light intensity. Hydrobiologia 299(3): 179-183.
This study examined the relationship between light intensity and the number of juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) visible to a snorkeler during February in the Henrys Fork of the Snake River, Idaho, USA. Fish were concealed in the substratum during daylight. Emergence from concealment was observed from 30 to 80 min after real sunset time and began when stars were first visible (pyranometric irradiance, 4.5 times 10-3 W-2). Densities of visible fish were negatively correlated with light intensity (r-2 = 0.81, P lt 0.001). Later at night, densities decreased in the presence of moonlight and artificial light. Fish were observed to feed at night.
Derrickson, K. C. (1988). Variation in repertoire presentation in northern mockingbirds. Condor 90(3): 592 to 606.
Male Northern Mockingbirds (Mimus polyglottos) have exceptionally large vocal repertoires. The manner of presenting this extensive repertoire, as described using five measures, varied with reproductive stage, among situations, and among individuals. All three versatility measures peaked during courtship declined significantly during incubation, and then slowly increased during nestling and fledgling stages. A fourth measure, bout length, increased as the season progressed, being shortest during courtship and longest during the fledgling stage. A final measure, recurrence interval (number of intervening bouts between two bouts of a particular song type) was shorter during the nestling and fledging stages than during courtship. Recurrence interval was shortest during patrolling and countersinging with neighboring males. Over 25% of the song types occurred only once in the sampling of singing behavior of four males each over 2 years. Mockingbirds sang these rare song types most commonly during prefemale and courtship stages, thereby increasing the recurrence interval and versatility during these stages. The pattern just described resulted in the greatest number of song types being sung per unit of time during courtship and provide circumstantial support for the hypothesis that song functions intersexually in mockingbirds. The ability to alter the manner of presentation may provide mockingbirds with the flexibility to emphasize particular functions at certain times and other functions at other times. Males with the highest versatility measures and lowest bout length tended to be the first to acquire mates and begin to nest. However, the importance of versatility in attracting females remains speculative and requires further experimental testing because these results were from only four males. Songs sung at night were presented in a manner most similar to the period before a female arrived on a male's territory. Interestingly, under natural lighting conditions, only unmated males sang extensively at night.
Frank, K. D. (1988). Impact of outdoor lighting on moths: An assessment. Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society 42(2): 63-93.
Outdoor lighting has sharply increased over the last four decades. Lepidopterists have blamed it for causing declines in populations of moths. How outdoor lighting affects moths, however, has never been comprehensively assessed. The current study makes such an assessment on the basis of published literature. Outdoor lighting disturbs flight, navigation, vision, migration, dispersal, oviposition, mating, feeding and crypsis in some moths. In addition it may disturb cicadian rhythms and photoperiodism. It exposes moths to increased predation by birds, bats, spiders, and other predators. However, destruction of vast numbers of moths in light traps has not eradicated moth populations. Diverse species of moths have been found in illuminated urban environments, and extinctions due to electric lighting have not been documented. Outdoor lighting does not appear to affect flight or other activities of many moths, and counterbalancing ecological forces may reduce or negate those disturbances which do occur. Despite these observations outdoor lighting may influence some populations of moths. The result may be evolutionary modification of moth behavior, or disruption or elimination of moth populations. The impact of lighting may increase in the future as outdoor lighting expands into new areas and illuminates moth populations threatened by other disturbances. Reducing exposure to lighting may help protect moths in small, endangered habitats. Low-pressure sodium lamps are less likely than are other lamps to elicit flight-to-light behavior, and to shift circadian rhythms. They may be used to reduce adverse effects of lighting.
Frank, K. D. (1989). Impact of outdoor lighting on moths. Light Pollution, Radio Intereference, and Space Debris, Washington, DC, Astronomical Society of the Pacific.
Gorenzel, W. P. and T. P. Salmon (1995). Characteristics of American Crow urban roosts in California. Journal of Wildlife Management 59(4): 638 to 645.
American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) roost in urban areas across the United States creating problems resulting from fecal droppings, noise, and health hazards. With little information about roosts, managers have been unable to respond to questions from the public about roost problems or design control programs. We counted crows flying into Woodland, California, to roost, surveyed roosts for occupancy, and recorded features of 87 roost trees and 62 randomly selected nonroost trees from August 1992 through July 1994. Some crows roosted in town all year, with peak abundance from September through January. Roost trees had greater height, diameter at breast height (dbh), and crown diameter and volume than nonroost trees (P < 0.001 all cases). Most roost trees were located over an asphalt or concrete substrate (P < 0.001) in commercial areas of the city, rather than in residential areas (P < 0.001), and were subjected to greater disturbance from vehicles and people (P < 0.01). Ambient light levels and interior canopy temperatures during winter were greater at roost trees than nonroost trees (P < 0.001 both cases). There were seasonal changes in roost trees selected with an increased (P < 0.001) use of deciduous trees (elms (Ulmus spp.), mulberries (Morus spp.), oaks (Quercus spp.), and ashes (Fraxinus spp.)) in residential areas during summer months as opposed to the concentrated use of evergreen oaks, alders (Alnus spp.), and conifers (Pinus spp. and Sequoia spp.) in commercial areas during winter. We developed a logistic regression model with 4 variables that correctly classified status of 85% of roost or nonroost trees.
Klotz, J. H. and B. L. Reid 1993. Nocturnal orientation in the black carpenter ant Camponotus pennsylvanicus Degeer (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Insectes Sociaux 40(1):95 to 106.
The black carpenter ant Camponotus pennsylvanicus (DeGeer), a predominantly nocturnal Formicine ant, responds to a hierarchy of visual and tactile cues when orienting along odor trails at night. Under illumination from moonlight or artificial light, workers rely upon these beacons to mediate phototactic orientation. In the absence of moonlight or artificial lights, ants were able to orient visually to terrestrial landmarks. In the absence of all landmarks, save for overhanging tree branches, ants could negotiate shortcuts or make directional changes in response to visual landmarks presented within the tree canopy on a moonless night. When experimental manipulations placed the ants in total darkness, they could no longer negotiate shortcuts and would resort to thigmotactic orientation along structural guidelines to reach a food source. The hierachical organization of these diverse cues in a foraging strategy is discussed, as well as their adaptive significance to C. pennsylvanicus.
Nein, R. A Robin uses artificial light for feeding at night. Beitraege zur Naturkunde der Wetterau 9(2): 213.
Peters, A. and K. J. F. Verhoeven 1994. Impact of artificial lighting on the seaward orientation of hatchling loggerhead turtles. Journal of Herpetology 28(1): 112 to 114.
Salmon, M., R. Reiners, et al. 1995. Behavior of loggerhead sea turtles on an urban beach. I. Correlates of nest placement. Journal of Herpetology 29(4): 560 to 567.
Evans, D.L. 1980. Multivariate analyses of weather and fall migration of saw-whet owls at Duluth, Minnesota. MS Thesis, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota. 49pp.
Palmer, D.A. 1986. Habitat selection, movements and activity of boreal and saw-whet owls. MS Thesis, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, Colorado. 101pp.
Richardson, W.J. 1978. Timing and amount of bird migration in relation to weather: a review. Oikos 30:224-272.
Loggerhead sea turtles nesting in Florida sometimes deposit their clutches on urban beaches. This study was undertaken at a city beach to determine correlations between physical variables and where nests were placed. Over a four year period, the distribution of nests on the beach was statistically identical. Nesting density variation at particular sites was unrelated to offshore depth profiles or to beach width, but was strongly correlated with the presence of tall objects (clusters of mature Australian pine trees and rows of multi-storied condominiums) located between the beach and the city. There are no reports that females nest preferentially in front of tall objects (dune or vegetation) at natural rookeries. The response may be unique to urban rookeries where the nesting habitat is exposed to artificial lighting. Tall buildings and trees shielded the beach from city light, with the magnitude of the effect (and the number of nests) positively related to object elevation. Planting vegetation and reestablishing dunes on urban beaches may be effective methods for attracting nesting turtles to these sites.
Salmon, M., M. G. Tolbert, et al. (1995). Behavior of loggerhead sea turtles on an urban beach. II. Hatchling orientation. Journal of Herpetology 29(4): 568 to 576.
At several locations on an urban nesting beach, loggerhead hatchlings emerging from their nests did not orient toward the sea. The cause was city lighting which disrupted normal seafinding behavior. Observations and experiments were conducted to determine why females nested where hatchlings were exposed to illumination, and how hatchlings responded to local conditions. In some cases, females nested late at night after lights were turned off, but hatchlings emerged earlier in the evening when lights were on. In other cases, the beach was shadowed by buildings directly behind the nest, but was exposed to lights from gaps between adjacent buildings. In laboratory tests, "urban silhouettes" (mimicking buildings with light gaps) failed to provide adequate cues for hatchling orientation whereas natural silhouettes (those without light gaps) did. Adding a low light barrier (simulating a dune or dense vegetation) in front of the gaps improved orientation accuracy. The data show that hatchling orientation is a sensitive assay of beach lighting conditions, and that light barriers can make urban beaches safer for emerging hatchlings. At urban beaches where it may be impossible to shield all luminaires, light barriers may be an effective method for protecting turtles.
Salmon, M. and B. E. Witherington (1995). Artificial lighting and seafinding by loggerhead hatchlings: Evidence for lunar modulation. Copeia 1995(4): 931 to 938.
Hatchling sea turtles generally emerge from nests at night and crawl immediately toward the ocean ("seafinding orientation"). On natural, dark beaches their orientation is usually appropriate, but where oceanfront buildings are present, hatchlings may crawl toward artificial lighting behind the beach. A systematic survey during the 1993 nesting season documented that, on Florida's beaches, such abnormal behavior ("disrupted orientation") occurred most often on dark nights around new moon and least often under full-moon illumination. Experiments on an urbanized Florida beach (Boca Raton, Palm Beach County) showed that background illumination from the moon, and not an attraction to the moon itself, restored normal seafinding orientation. Background illumination reduced, but did not eliminate, light intensity gradients imposed by artificial lighting. Thus, when seafinding was restored, hatchlings moved toward dimmer, not brighter, horizons. These results suggest that loggerhead hatchlings can locate the sea using mechanisms other than a positive phototaxis (the most widely held view). An alternative hypothesis, supported by these results, is that batchlings locate the ocean by crawling away from objects behind the beach (dune, vegetation, or buildings) using shape and/or elevation cues.
Simon, D. (1999). Vanishing Night Skies. Washington, DC, National Parks and Conservation Association.
Summers, C. G. (1997). Phototactic behavior of Bemisia argentifolii (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) crawlers. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 90(3): 372-379.
First instars (crawlers) of Bemisia argentifolii Bellows and Perring were observed in the field and laboratory to move upward on plants, presumably in search of acceptable feeding sites. Laboratory experiments were conducted on a host plant and an artificial surface to determine if this movement was random, or a response to light (phototaxis) or gravity (geotaxis). Greenhouse-reared B. argentifolii crawlers were positively phototactic in experiments conducted on a host plant and on an artificial surface of black construction paper. Crawlers moved up or down the petiole of cheeseweed. Malva parviflora L., with equal facility, toward a light source placed either above or below the leaf blade. Response was always toward the light (positive phototaxis) and there was no response to gravity, either positive or negative. Crawlers placed on an artificial surface in a dark arena and presented with a point light source had a significant mean angular dispersion toward the light. Crawlers illuminated with uniform overhead lighting or kept in darkness moved about the arena at random. Crawlers maintained in darkness on cheeseweed and the artificial surface moved a significantly shorter distance from their origin than did those exposed to light. Such behavior suggests that some minimal light intensity may be necessary to stimulate crawler activity. The positive phototactic response may contribute to survival of B. argentifolii by enabling individuals eclosing from fall laid eggs, on leaves that become senescent during the winter, to find suitable leaves for development higher on the plant.
Telfer, T. C., J. L. Sincock, et al. (1987). Attraction of Hawaiian Seabirds To Lights Conservation Efforts and Effects of Moon Phase. Wildlife Society Bulletin 15(3): 406-413.
Tessmer, J. W., C. L. Meek, et al. 1995. Circadian patterns of oviposition by necrophilous flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) in southern Louisiana. Southwestern Entomologist 20(4): 439 to 445.
Circadian ovipositional activities of calliphorid flies on poultry carcasses were assessed during two 24-h periods in mid-summer 1994 during full (July study) and new moon (August study) phases in urban habitats with artificial lighting and in rural habitats without artificial lighting. Immatures of Cochliomyia macellaria (F.) and Phaenicia sericata (Meigen) were the predominant species collected during each of the two 24-h field studies. Flies oviposited during the afternoon diurnal hours and during the morning diurnal period of the following day of the July and August studies. However, egg deposition did not occur on any poultry carcass between the nocturnal hours of 2100 and 0500-h CDST for either study period regardless of the presence or absence of artificial or natural (i.e., full moon) lighting.
Upgren, A. R. (1996). Night blindness: Light pollution is changing astronomy, the environment, and our experience of nature. The Amicus Journal Winter: 22 to 25.
Wehr, T. A. (1997). Melatonin and seasonal rhythms. Journal of Biological Rhythms 12(6): 518 to 527.
The pineal hormone melatonin plays a ubiquitous role in biology as a chemical mediator of the effects of season on animal physiology and behavior. Seasonal changes in night length (scotoperiod) induce parallel changes in the duration of melatonin secretion (which occurs exclusively at night), so that it is longer in winter and shorter in summer. These changes in duration of nocturnal melatonin secretion, in turn, trigger seasonal changes in behavior. The retinohypothalamic-pineal (RHP) axis's responses to light are highly conserved in humans. Like other animals, humans secrete melatonin exclusively at night, and they interrupt its secretion when they are exposed to light during the nocturnal period of its secretion. In many individuals, the RHP axis also is capable of detecting changes in the length of the night and making proportional adjustments in the duration of nocturnal melatonin secretion, producing the type of melatonin message that animals use to trigger seasonal changes in their behavior. This has been shown both in naturalistic studies in which melatonin profiles were compared in summer and winter and in experimental studies in which melatonin profiles were compared after chronic exposure to long and short artificial "nights." Individuals who live in modern urban environments differ in the degree to which, or even whether, the intrinsic duration of melatonin secretion (the duration measured in constant dim light) responds to seasonal changes in the length of the solar night. Changes in the intrinsic duration of melatonin secretion that are induced by changes in the scotoperiod are highly correlated with changes in the intrinsic timing of the morning offset of secretion and are only weakly correlated with changes in the intrinsic timing of evening onset of secretion. This finding suggests that differences in the way in which individuals are exposed to, or process, morning light may explain differences in their responsiveness to changes in duration of natural and experimental scotoperiods. Although the human RHP axis clearly is capable of detecting changes in the length of the night and in producing the melatonin message that other animals use to trigger seasonal changes in their behavior, it is not yet known whether or how the human reproductive system or other systems respond to this message.
White, A. G. (1974). Excessive light as a form of urban-created pollution: a selected bibliography. Monticello, Ill., Council of Planning Librarians.
Hoving, E. J. and S. G. Sealy (1987). Species and age composition of a sample of birds killed in Fall 1979 at a Manitoba (Canada) TV tower. Prairie Naturalist 19(2): 129-134.
Examination was made of a sample of 220 birds of 21 species killed in collision with a TV tower near Ste. Agathe, Manitoba, in late August 1979. All of the individuals were passerines, except for one immature sora (Porzana carolina). One hundred and eighty-six individuals were aged. Sample sizes were small for all species except the Swainson's thrush (Catharus ustulatus) and red-eyed vireo (Vireo olivaceus): 76% of the Swainson's thrushes were immatures, 92% of the red-eyed vireos were adults. One adult Swainson's thrush had not begun its wing molt. The wing molt was still underway in one unaged Tennesses warblet (Vermivora peregrina) and one adult rose-breasted grosbeak (Pheucitus ludovicianus).
Ogden, L. J. E. (1996). Collision Course: The Hazards of Lighted Structures and Windows to Migrating Birds. Toronto, World Wildlife Fund Canada and Fatal Light Awareness Program.
Braden, C. (1998). Bright light thretens migratory flight. BBC Online. 1999.
Milius, S. (1999). Nocturnal spider favors artificial lights. Science News 155(26): 407.
Rydell, J. and H. J. Baagoe (1996). Street lamps increase bat predation on moths. Entomologisk Tidskrift 117(part 4): 129 to 135.
Streets and roads lit by mercury vapour streetlamps provide important feeding habitats for several species of bats, because the lights attract insects, including moths, which thus become easily accessible to the predators. Some common Scandinavian bat species, mostly the northern bat (Eptesicus nilssonii), the particoloured bat (Vespertilio murinus) and the serotine (Eptesicus serotinus), occur at high densities near streetlights (usually 2-5 bats per km, occasionally up to 20 per km). Bats foraging around streetlights catch male moths in large numbers. The effect of the increased predation on the moth populations is unknown. Mercury vapour lights are currently replaced by environmentally more friendly orange sodium lights in many areas. Sodium lamps do not attract insects to the same extent. The replacement will therefore result in decreased food availability for bats that forage near lights (such as those mentioned above). Our threatened bat species seldom feed near streetlights, and will therefore not be affected directly by the replacement.
Upgren, A. R. (1996). Night blindness: Light pollution is changing astronomy, the environment, and our experience of nature. The Amicus Journal, Winter: 22 to 25.
Verheijen, F. J. (1958). The mechanisms of the trapping effect of artificial light sources upon animals. Netherlands Journal of Zoology 13: 1 to 107.
Verheijen, F. J. (1985). Photopollution: Artificial light optic spatial control systems fail to cope with. Incidents, causations, remedies. Experimental Biology 1985:1 to 18.
Woodford, J. (1999). Bridge plan puts stars in bad light. Sydney Morning Herald. Sydney, Australia.
Svensson, A. M. and J. Rydell (1998). Mercury vapour lamps interfere with the bat defence of tympanate moths (Operophtera spp.; Geometridae). Animal Behaviour 55(1):223 to 226.
Bats often forage near streetlamps, where they catch moths in particular. At least two hypotheses may explain the apparent increase in the availability of moths to bats feeding around streetlamps: (1) the moths become concentrated near the light and therefore more profitable to exploit; and (2) the light interferes with the moths' evasive flight behaviour. We tested the second of these hypotheses by exposing flying male winter moths, Operophtera spp., to bursts of ultrasound (26 kHz, 110 dB sound pressure level) from an electronic source. The light from a 125 W mercury vapour lamp had a quantitative effect on the moths' evasive flight response at close range (within ca 4 m), inhibiting it totally in nearly half (43%, N = 125) of the cases. By contrast, moths flying in the surrounding woodland and without interference from the lamp always responded to the sound. Streetlamps of the mercury vapour type (white lamps) thus interfere with the defensive behaviour of moths and presumably increase their vulnerability to echolocating bats. This may have implications for the conservation of both moths and bats.
email 2-25-2000 apparently in response to Travis request.
We have a proposal for installing lights at an athletic field adjacent to
coastal dunes.
Do you have any references on the effects of lighting on insects in these
habitats?
John D. Dixon, Ph.D.
Ecologist / Wetlands Coordinator
Technical Services Unit
California Coastal Commission
45 Fremont, Suite 2000
San Francisco, CA 94105
415-904-5250; fax 415-904-5400
jdixon@coastal.ca.gov
http://ceres.ca.gov/coastalcomm/
Lunar Condition Influences Coyote (Canis latrans) Howling Darren J. Bender; Erin M. Bayne; R. Mark Brigham American Midland Naturalist, Vol. 136, No. 2. (Oct., 1996), pp. 413-417. Abstract Prairie folklore suggests that coyotes (Canis latrans) increase howling when the moon is full, yet menstrual patterns of coyote vocalizations have never been formally investigated. Thus, our purpose was to determine whether howling by coyotes is related to lunar condition. The study was conducted in July and August 1992, and from June to August 1994, in the Cypress Hills region of southwestern Saskatchewan, Canada. Coyote howling was surveyed immediately following dusk for 90-120 min, and was categorized by lunar condition. Group howling and group-yip howling were negatively related to increasing moonlight, but there was no relationship between lone howling and moonlight. These results might be explained by changes in the social behavior of coyotes with respect to foraging behavior and territory defense.
A beetle is the first animal identified to use the pattern of moonlight as a night-time compass. < http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/em/fr/-/1/hi/sci/tech/3038486.stm >
Some obscure literature does exist on moonlight and activity (Clark, J.A.
1983). We have attempted to work with moonlight and activity on
black-footed ferret reintroductions but have had difficulty measuring
moonlight quantitatively. We did however look at moonlight and activity
for predator avoidance in Siberian polecats and black-footed ferrets in a
lab setting. Some of the information is found in Dean Biggins, Phd
Dissertation, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, CO, 2000.
Jerry L Godbey/BRD/USGS/DOI on 07/07/2003
Whip-poor-will bird reproductive cycle is correlated with phases of the moon, probably to improve insect foraging ease.
See also a bibliography on light effects.
See Radiant Color, Richmond, CA 1-800-radiant for dyes and materials for night vision equipment.
A compilation by:
Becky Holmes
Wildlife Biologist
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Division of Migratory Bird Management
Population Assessment Section
11500 American Holly Drive-Henshaw Bldg.
Laurel, MD 20708-4016
301.497.5862 (O)
301.497.5871 (F)
Little over a week ago I ask the listserv for suggested websites and/or software for sunrise and sunset times. I compiled the rather lengthy list and this is what I received. This list is by no means in any particular order. I want to thank all of you who gave suggestions.
The US Navel Observatory, Astronomical Applications Dept.
http://aa.usno.navy.mil/AA/data/docs/RS_OneYear.html
http://riemann.usno.navy.mil/AA/data/docs/RS_OneDay.html
(For your 2600 sites, you might try talking to the Naval Observatory
directly about running a batch file request.)
A java script program
www.susdesign.com/sunangle
Dmoz search engine results for sunrise/sunset times
http://dirt.dmoz.org/Science/Astronomy/Solar_System/Sun/Sunrise_and_Sunset_Times/
National Weather Service
http://www.wrh.noaa.gov/Sacramento/html/srss.html
Jurgen Giesen's GeoAstro Applet Collection
http://mgw.dinet.de/physik/daylight/
NOAA Surface Radiation Research Branch, Sunrise/Sunset Calculator
http://www.srrb.noaa.gov/highlights/sunrise/gen.html
Compute Sunrise, Sunset and Twilight For Cities and Airports Worldwide With
Local TZ
http://cmpsolv.com/los/sunset.html
Use the year-around darkness diagram of Gaisma at http://www.gaisma.com/en/info/help.html
Sunrise, Sunset Calendars and Local Time
http://www.sunrisesunset.com
The Wildlife Biology Information Page
http://members.aol.com/Bioweb98/resource.html
http://www.jabberwocky.com/townfinder.cgi?prog
=%2fphoto%2fsuntimes%2ecgi
Time Service Dept. Sunrise/Sunset/Twilight and Moonrise/Moonset/Phase
http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/srss.html
Old Farmers Almanac
www.almanac.com
Becky: your question about Sunrise/Sunset times does not appear to have been adequately answered. On the internet there are lots of programs to calculate these times for single sites but I am sure that you don't want to enter these individually for each of your 2600 locations. I believe the formula for calculating this can be found in the book listed below. I have not seen the book though I have seen it referenced and it supposedly has the information you need. If I were doing this I would place the longitude/latitude/time zone data in an excel spreadsheet and then use a formula or Visual Basic Script to calculate the times you need. Good luck.
Author:
Duffett-Smith, Peter.
Title:
Practical astronomy with your calculator / Peter Duffett-Smith.
Cambridge [Eng.] ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 1979.
xi, 129 p. : ill. ; 21 cm.
Subject:
Calculators
Astronomy--Problems, exercises, etc.
Notes:
Includes index.
ISBN:
0521227615
0521296366 (pbk.)
If you have a Palm OS device, check out the freeware Tide Tool at www.toolworks.com/bilofsky/tidetool.htm. This program includes a sunrise/sunset function keyed to your time zone.
Handheld GPS such as those by GARMIN usually have a built-in sunrise/sunset function which can be set according to locality in question. But I do not know how reliable the values are.
Try sun clock (free download) from mapmaker.com, I think you should be able to get the info you need from lats and longs. Also try Home Planet for windows (also free) at fourmilab.ch. I don't know how accurate they are, but both seem to give reliable time, sunsets and rises, moonrises and sets.
There's probably quite a few programs to do what you want and more. I
did download some that I needed for similar purposes from the software
repository of Sky and Telescope Magazine(simple internet search). Many amateur astronomy programs provide sunrise/sunset as well as moonrise/moonset times for any
locality given geographical coordinates. Check out this magazine's web site and you'll probably find what you need. I'm not sure about accurateness and reliability, but I thinks it's worth checking.
The Navy's Nautical Almanac would be helpful
Tide tables usually have these times for coastal areas. I'm unsure for
"inland" areas.
There used to be an astronomy software (Astronomy Lab) that
calculated, besides a lot of other stuff, a complete astronomical
calendar including sunrise/sunset. Just enter your location on earth
and go ...
Search in the internet for alw203.zip, there should be a few sites
that have this program (I just found the homepage
http://www.personalmicrocosms.com/html/ss_alw32.html)
I have an older Mac with a program called "worldclock lite" installed. The program does have an option which will show you the sunrise/sunset time for just about any location/date on earth if you reset your date/location. I did a search on yahoo for "worldclock lite" and came up with a number of results.
Try National Institute of Science and Technology, since they maintain the time standards for the U.S.
I use "Eye on Sunrise", a shareware program you can download from
http://www.azstarnet.com/~bfulton/avpress.htm
Their description:
"EOSUN.ZIP -- version 1.2D, Shareware. A handy sun and moon calculator
for Windows and Windows 95. Calculates time of sunrise, sunset,
moonrise, moonset and percent full moon for any location, with starter
database of over 250 cities in the United States and worldwide. Your
time, the time of an alternate selected city of your choice if desired
and UTC (Greenwich Mean Time) are continuously displayed. Also
features a 24 time zone world clock display; handles 30 minute offset
time zones and daylight savings time. Recent versions add 'copy data
to clipboard' routines so you can print or graph results using your
spreadsheet or word processor programs." (The program also contains some weather forecasting features.)
A Navy source for sun and moon by day.
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July, 2003 the comment was received from John, HerronAustin, TX
I've wondered if we should use a lunar calendar (13-month) to track breeding seasons, migration and other seasonal behaviors, rather than our 12-month calendar. Seems to me that wildlife would be sensitive to lunar phase, as well as season of the year; certainly no reason to expect that they follow a human calendar. The peak of the rut in white-tailed deer, for example, seems to correspond with a full-moon in mid-fall - but I don't know if its ever been documented in terrestrial species. I seem to recall that it has been for some marine fish (grunion? squid?).
Lai et al. 2002 (Global change biology 8:124-141) noted the challenge to quantify ecosystem carbon budgets was in properly quantifying the magnitude of nighttime ecosystem respiration.
Stein reported (2003): When insects synthesize their chitin in the presence of UV, it forms a different structure than when in the dark.
See Nightforce devices - viewing, scopes, etc.
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