| A unit of Lasting Forests
evolving since March 30, 1999 |
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A Total Forest Management Plan
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See
See the Forest Service and Izaac Walton Leagues book on vernal ponds.
See concepts in The Fishery of Rural System.
Wildlife management and similarly fishery management includes emphasis on decision making. Some of the key questions and thus related decisions to be made include, un-ordered:
Pond management includes, besides the biological and ecological issues:
We operate on the premise that it is as important to improve conditions for anglers as for fish.
There are sufficiently difficult and abundant questions to suggest caution and the need for superior managers.
Minimum Measures for Ponds and Lakes
Detailed maps of water and light zones as well as surface of ponds need to be developed with GIS.
Water Quality Measures typically include and model is needed for:
Conventional pond and lake parameters:
Over the years we will be reporting:
This unit is being developed along with units within The Fishery.
The Pond's Watershed
Over a pond, we cannot control the rainfall. Larger ponds and lakes tend to pull some rain clouds into themselves, but this is small and unlike the heat island or chimney effect produced by cities. We can influence the amount of water in ponds. In wildlife waterholes we can use covers to reduce evaporation. In usual ponds we can increase water intercepted and dripped onto the ground (called "fog drip"). We can influence the land cover to reduce rainfall impact. The thickness, looseness, and texture of soil and surface litter greatly influence water for the pond. We're trying to get water into the soil mantle to reduce erosion and to allow slow percolations from it into streams and springs supplying the pond. Sometimes, but not often, water will exceed the capacity of the well-designed pond. We design and develop spillways for these infrequent events. Eventually people may realize the need for controlling water from the time it falls until it runs into a pond…and eventually the ocean. Ponds can be one means of control, of deciding whether the rain and snow that falls on the watersheds will be a blessing or a catastrophe. Make no mistake, even wilderness forests and managed areas cannot withstand the assault of extreme rainfall and melt conditions and watershed losses may occur. Streams now overtop their banks far more often now than before settlement. We may not be able to return to those average conditions, but we can make changes in many areas. In undisturbed Eastern U.S. conditions, the soil, cover, and moisture supplies tend to be in balance. Plants and their growth have adjusted over at least 10,000 years to the amount of rainfall and temperature conditions and the stream channels to the runoff they must carry.
The average pond is variable but about _________ acres of watershed for runoff are needed per acre-foot. You have _____ acre feet and _______ acres of watershed; thus, a score of ______.
At least 1/4th of the pond should be over 10 feet deep to provide a long-term fish volume during all seasons over a variable period of at least 30 years. Your pond has a proportion of _______________ of these depths, thus, a score of _____.
| Figure x. The pond or small lake can be considered an ecosystem and described with a flow diagram or "compartment model." Here inputs are to the left, the pond enclosed within the blue line, and outputs are shown at the right. It is based on Watt, D.G. and O.L. Louks 1969. Models for describing exchanges within ecosystems, Special rpt., Inst. Env. Studies, Univ. Wisconsin, Madison, 18 p. Lake Wingra was under study. |
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Sediment loading of ponds will be based on Guy and Norman (1982) and recent work.
Moonlight as well as solar radiation of pond bottom surfaces are likely to provide new concepts for angling as well as fish production and sediment influences.
It seems that ponds can be most cost-effectively managed over many years within the context of a Rural System fishery.
Pond Gravel Analyses
Some fish species with which the Fishery Group works spawn or lay eggs in gravel and tend them. This is particularly true for trout, but likely for some other species. We use the work of Lotspeich and Everest (1981) (based on work as far back as 1928) to obtain the gravel quality. These are used to help determine suitability, classify and compare areas, monitor spawning sites over time, and provide feedback (when the index changes). Sediment texture influences two fundamental properties of the gravel used by fish. These are pore size and permeability. Pore size is used, not porosity, because pore size and permeability are directly proportional to mean grain size. [Porosity was rejected because it is independent of grain size.] Pore size and permeability regulate intra-gravel water velocity and oxygen transport to eggs and incubating fish and other organisms. Pore size also relates to particle size, which influences surface areas available for attachments and ion exchange. We study fish survival (s; e: the % or number per unit area) and relate it to d, the geometric mean particle size, and to g, a sorting coefficient or size distribution. The distribution is inversely proportional to permeability. The relationship studied is: a = a + bd - cg.
| A | B | D | ||
| Screen Size | Proportion | Weight | Screen Size | AB |
Consider replacement with H1 or with S2
Screens might be used
76.1 to 304.7mm -- 3-11.9 in.
4.7 to 76.0 mm -- 0.19 to 2.9 in
less than 4.7 and less -- 0.18 in and less
The gravel pore size in your pond is ____________.
The distribution of these gravels is ______________.
[A value of 1.0 indicates they are all exactly alike. Imperfectly sorted gravels have values higher than 1.0 and implies that pores between large grains are filled with smaller grains that may impede permeability.]
A fredle index used by some stream workers is ___________ (simply d/g) but we keep the two values separate for several important analytical reasons.
Ponds for Waterfowl
Very small ponds (about 100 foot diameter; about 0.25 acres) are rarely used by waterfowl. The dabbling ducks (e.g., mallard, shallow pintail, widgeon, godwall) require shallow water (0.6 m. to 2 feet or less) in which to feed. The total area in your pond is __________ square feet, giving it a size score of _________.
Small irregularly shaped ponds with emergent vegetation and islands provide areas for waterfowl for courtship, nests, resting, feeding, and brood rearing. Your shoreline score is _________.
Small furbearers like raccoons, skunks, weasels, and minks can reduce waterfowl nesting success.
Shorelines should pitch at a slope of less than 5 to 1. Your slope score is ________________.
Pond size and distance between ponds re the 2 key variables (out of 28) that relate well to presence of feeding pairs of mallards. Food, escape cover, fertility not surprisingly relate to duck broods produced. Nearness to other water bodies gives your pond a score of _____________.
Islands in these ponds should be 0.01 to 0.15 acres, vegetated, at least 30 feet from shores, and a 1.5 foot or greater depth channel between island and shore. No more than 30% of the pond need be deeper than 3 feet. Nesting success on these areas can be 90% (compared to 20% for mainlands).
[Your islands (if present) have a score of _____ in matching well with these criteria.]
Commercial Fee-Fishing Ponds-Warm Water
In 1976 each angler took about 14.7 trips (warmwater) per year. Angling pressure is about 20 trips per acre in unmanaged conditions. We diversity our system to match the diverse interest of people , interests, that change with age, education, experience, and with the age, interests, and angling experiences of family members.
30 trips/pond/person or family at $5.00 = $150
$150 x 500 customers = $75,000
100 ponds
30 weekend users
3000 weekends
x 3 people/pond
9,000 x $5.00 = $45,000
Suitable warm water ponds can be used to market fish to the recreation angler. There are two types of fee-fishing operations: (1) catch-out, and (2) put-and-take. In catch-out ponds, the fish are reared in the ponds from which they are caught. IN a put-and-take operation, catchable size trout are stocked at high densities in ponds from which they are caught. Channel catfish or a combination of catfish, bass, and sunfish can be used in these ponds.
Catch-out ponds of five acres or more will be most efficiently operated. Put-and-take ponds, however, should be smaller -1/2 to 1 acre.
Channel catfish stocked during spring at 5 inches (approximately $100 per thousand) will grow to 0.75 to 1 pound at the end of a 210-day growing season. Stocking rate should be around 1,000 fish per acre. Put-and-take ponds can be stocked with up to 2,000 pounds per acre of catfish averaging 1.0 pound. These catchable size fish could be reared in other ponds at your site or purchased from commercial dealers.
To produce adequate numbers of catchable size trout in a catch-out pond, supplemental feeding will be required. The average feeding rate will be approximately 3% of the total fish weight per day, but no more than what the fish will consume 15 minutes after feeding. Catfish in put-and-take ponds should be fed only enough to maintain vigor.
The customers at fee fishing operations seek recreation as well as food fish. Therefore, it is necessary to maintain a neat establishment and provide adequate facilities and services. The most successful fee-fishing operations not only provide good fishing but a satisfying recreation experience.
For further information on fee-fishing ponds, contact the state fishery at any office nearest you, the Natural Resource Conservation Service Office in your county (U.S. Government, Department of Agriculture) in your county.
A checklist and pattern for analyzing costs, all highly variable, may help you assess the investment in new ponds for two types of fee-fishing operations using channel catfish. (Revised January, 1979.)
Ponds for Waterfowl
Very small ponds (about 100 foot diameter; about 0.25 acres) are rarely used by waterfowl. The dabbling ducks (e.g., mallard, shallow pintail, widgeon, godwall) require shallow water (0.6 m. to 2 feet or less) in which to feed. The total area in your pond is __________ square feet, giving it a size score of _________.
Small irregularly shaped ponds with emergent vegetation and islands provide areas for waterfowl for courtship, nests, resting, feeding, and brood rearing. Your shoreline score is _________.
Small furbearers like raccoons, skunks, weasels, and minks can reduce waterfowl nesting success.
Shorelines should pitch at a slope of less than 5 to 1. Your slope score is ________________.
Pond size and distance between ponds re the 2 key variables (out of 28) that relate well to presence of feeding pairs of mallards. Food, escape cover, fertility not surprisingly relate to duck broods produced. Nearness to other water bodies gives your pond a score of _____________.
Islands in these ponds should be 0.01 to 0.15 acres, vegetated, at least 30 feet from shores, and a 1.5 foot or greater depth channel between island and shore. NO more than 30% of the pond need be deeper than 3 feet. Nesting success on these areas can be 90% (compared to 20% for mainlands).
[Your islands (if present) have a score of _____ in matching well with these criteria.]
| Typical Fee-Fishing Production Costs for an Acre of Water in Two Types of Pond Operation | ||
| Items of Expense | Catch-Out | Put-and-Take |
| Initial Cost per Acre | ||
| Pond (per acre of water) | 1,200 | 1,500 |
| Fence | 300 | 300 |
| Road and gravel | 700 | 700 |
| Total Initial Costs | $2,200 | $2,500 |
| Annual Overhead and Maintenance | ||
| Pond, amortized @ 9% 5 yrs. | 295 | 368 |
| Fence and road, amortized @ 9% 5 yrs | 246 | 246 |
| Pond and bank maintenance | 35 | 35 |
| Annual maintenance of roads and grounds | 80 | 80 |
| Total | $656 | $729 |
| Annual Production Costs per Acre | ||
| Stocking (Channel catfish) | 100 (1,000 @ $100/thousand) | 975 |
| Feed @$10/100 pounds | 250 | 100 (1,500 @ $.65/lb.) |
| Chemicals and fertilizer for grounds | 20 | 20 (maintenance feeding) |
| Vehicles - use and maintenance | 70 | 70 |
| Taxes -Land | 50 | 50 |
| Interest on Operating Capital (9% 6 mo.) | 16 | 35 |
| Total | $506 | $1,250 |
Although the initial cost and annual production costs are higher per acre for put-and-take ponds than catch-out ponds in which the fish are reared, fish can be harvested immediately from the put-and-take ponds and usually at a greater rate so that profit is generally higher.
Catfish Production and Management
Since you expressed a desire to raise catfish as a part of your total management program, the following information is provided for your consideration. Fish production, as a supplemental source of income, can be very demanding of your time. Commercial catfish production generally requires several hours per day, and at times, when disease or dissolved oxygen occur, can require full-time attention. The success of such an operation is directly related to the amount of time devoted to it and the management skills of the operation.
Site Selection
In locating a pond site, the topography of the area must be taken into consideration. Soil permeability, water source, and access are other factors to be studied. The clay content of the soils will determine the suitability of the site. Porous soils will not hold water and leaks are likely to develop. Most commonly used water sources include surface runoff, wells, springs, and, since ponds may need to be drawn down rapidly to harvest fish or reduce the risk of oxygen problems, proper drainage is important. You should avoid sites on or near land containing pesticide residues, or land subject to treatment with pesticides. Contact the soil conservation service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture in your county for assistance in constructing ponds.
Pond Size
The size of a pond is generally determined by the slope, size of the site, and the availability of good quality water. Any pond will have advantages and disadvantages, but ponds of ˝ to 5 acres generally give maximum flexibility in management and harvesting, in disease control, and in ease of combating oxygen problems and bank erosion. Larger ponds, however, cost less per acre to construct than smaller ones.
Ponds generally fall into one of three categories: ravine, excavated, or levee. A ravine pond is constructed by damming a ravine with earth moved from the adjacent high ground. In this type of pond, ditches may be required to route hillside drainage around the pond, and a spillway must be constructed. The spillway must be screened to prevent fish loss during periods of overflow. Excavated ponds are constructed by removing earth from level land and utilizing the removed soil to build embankments around the pond site. These ponds are not generally subject to flooding or overflow from the surrounding area, but should be located in such a ay as to allow a gravity flow of water both into and out of the pond. Levee ponds are constructed on flat, agricultural land. The levees are constructed from soil moved in from another location and are similar to irrigated rice paddles but require higher levees to maintain the desired water depth.
Growing Fish
Two or three growing seasons are required to produce marketable catfish from eggs. The first season is devoted to hatching eggs and raising fingerlings; the second and possibly third to raising the fingerlings to edible size. This period can be shortened, however, by purchasing fingerlings from other producers and growing them to market size in one season. A six-inch fingerling, stocked in the early spring, will reach food fish size in about 210 days, depending upon the length of the local growing season. Purchased fingerlings should be of uniform size and should be healthy at the time of purchase. Deal only with reputable producers, known for the care and quality of their fish.
Stocking rates range from 1,000 to 2,000 fingerlings per acre. Up to 3,000 fingerlings per acre can be stocked if a large volume of water is available for flushing ponds. By stocking 1,5000 six-inch fingerlings per acre, harvestable fish should weight about one pound at the end of a 210-day growing season. This stocking rate is believed to result in the best growth and the most efficient use of feed. Overstocking is a major cause of fish mortality.
Management Considerations
Once the pond has been constructed, a decision must be made as to the size of the fish to be stocked, and the rate of stocking. Feeding rate must be adjusted according to fish size, water temperature, season, and weather. They are generally fed a pelleted feed at an average rate of 2-3% of their body weight per day by broadcasting a floating food. Most frequent problems encountered include disease, oxygen depletion, parasites, and overfeeding, but weeds and pest control must also be considered. Efficiency in harvesting and transportation the fish, the quality of both fingerings and fish food, maintenance of good water quality, and effective marketing all contribute to the success of a commercial fish operation.
Stocking
Stocking is done to establish desired populations of specific fish, to increase area-wide fish species richness, to match species with environments, to increase or improve populations in some ponds, to meet angling pressure in select ponds.
Select ponds are treated as "natural" and encouraged to develop unmodified and un-stocked except for the initial condition. Others are managed to meet specific objectives. A perceptual or perennial population is not an objective. In each case meeting demand at reasonable costs is the criteria. Stocking fingerlings or fry may be a low-cost option but rates of growth to a required size may suggest alternative strategies for cost effectiveness.
Rates typically care 125 lass to 1235 bluegills per hectare (50 to 500 per acre). Trout (2-4 inches) do not reproduce but are stocked at 500 per acre grow to 8 inches in 1 year. Fewer fish (250) tend to grow 10 inches. Stocking of trout is often done every 2 years in some systems. The Headwaters Group computes a stocking rate based on prior take and needed sizes in each pond. Growth is best in ponds with temperatures between 50-65°F (max is 86°F). Warm water fish to best where summer temperatures reach 80-90°F.
????See Page 148. P????Living Ponds, P. 153.
| Per-Acre Cost of Production, Gross Returns and Net Returns for Catfish at Three Levels of Production (Revised January 1979) | |||
| Item of Expense | 1,000 Lbs. Production | 1,500 Lbs. Production | 2,000 Lbs. Production |
| Feed | $ 275 | 413 | 680 |
| Fingerlings | 100 | 150 | 200 |
| Interest | 70 | 70 | 70 |
| Labor | 60 | 60 | 60 |
| Fuel and Oil | 50 | 50 | 50 |
| Supplies | 27 | 27 | 27 |
| Chemicals | 15 | 15 | 15 |
| Hauling | 15 | 15 | 15 |
| Miscellaneous | 25 | 25 | 25 |
| Total Expense | $637 | $825 | $1,142 |
| Gross Returns @ 0.60/lb. | 600 | 900 | 1,200 |
| Per acre (@ 0.75/lb.) | (750) | (1,125) | (1,500) |
| Net Returns @ 0.60/lb. | -37 | 75 | 58 |
| Per Acre (@ 0.75/lb.) | (113) | (300) | (358) |
Processors are currently (1979) paying .55 to .60/lb, live haulers are paying .65 to .70/lb., and fee-fishing operators are charging .75 to 1.00/lb. Catfish farming can be profitable, but it is a complex business that requires substantial capital investment.
See physical characteristics of lakes and ponds
REFERENCES
Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1973. Building a Pond. Farmer's Bulletin No. 2256. 14 pp.
Grizzell, R.A., Jr., O.W. Dillon, Jr., E.G. Sullivan, and L.V. Compton. 1975. Catfish Farming. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmer's Bulletin No. 2260. 21 pp.
Other References
Milan Straskraba (circ 1980)in LeCren, Lowe, McConnell editors, The functioning of freshwater ecosystems (IBP?) Cambridge Univ. Press (a good lake productivity model)
Guy, H.P. and V.W. Norman .1982. Field methods for measurement of fluvial sediment, chapter C2, Book 3, Applications of hydraulics; Techniques of water resources investigations of the US Geological Survey, Washington, DC 59pp.
Smythe, P.E. 1971. Guidelines to Developing a Fee-Fishing Area. Cooperative Extension Service. Leaflet 303, Kansas State University, Manhattan.
Street, D.R. 1969. The Fee Fishing Lakes as a Business in Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania State University, Agricultural Experiment Station in Cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economics Research Service. Bulletin 755.
Summerfelt, R.C. 1968. Fee-Fishing in American Fish and U.S. Trout News. July August.
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Last revision October 17, 2006.