| A unit of Lasting Forests
evolving since March 30, 1999 |
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A Total Forest Management Plan
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Trails are a primary means by which users may experience the benefits of the resources of an area. They provide access for administration, fire fighting (and fire barrier), inspections, and security. They provide the central "core" around which management activities may be concentrated. In some cases, they are energy-saving features of a habitat or space for the wildlife of an area. Animals tend to use human trails.
Following a general overview, descriptions of actions for the future are grouped under construction and maintenance.
General
In the initial process of planning a trail, the administrators must decide the ultimate use of the trail. This includes how often will the trail be used (intensity), how will the trail be used (type), how many people will use the trail (users), and how long will the trail remain in use (duration). The area that will be served by the trail helps to indicate the number of people and the type of people who will visit the area. The general types of areas are Archeological, Geological, Historical, Municipal Watershed, Natural or Virgin, Roadless, Scenic, and Wild or Wilderness. Trail maintenance and construction may be performed by various contractors or an agency crew. The manager is responsible for inspecting the construction and maintenance of all trails in the area. It is important to allocate funds for trail work at least 1 year in advance to allow the manager to plan the expenditures. The work plans must be very detailed and include crew size, job length, and the season in which the work will be done.
Crews of qualified and physically-fit personnel, preferably with training, are usually selected. They are usually capable of performing fire control work, if necessary.
Working conditions are very important, "A happy worker is a good worker." Because of this, when extended field work (3 days to 2 weeks) is done, a cook is hired and air mattresses or spring cots are provided to assure good rest. An important aspect of trail construction and maintenance is organization.
There must be a clearly defined leader who may do the same work as the rest of the crew but he or she must have a strong personality.
Surveys of the proposed trail route consist of 2 distinct steps, reconnaissance and location surveys. During the reconnaissance survey, the planner uses topographic maps, GIS, and aerial photographs to lay out a preliminary course or probable corridor for the trail. Natural landmarks are used to aid in locating the exact route as it appears on the map. GPS will increasingly be used to find selected points within the corridor to certify its proper location.
During the reconnaissance survey the planners take into account the grade of the proposed trail. Typically, no trail segment grades exceed 8-9 percent. If an 8 percent slope is used, an easing-off area of at least 500 feet once every 5 miles is included. It is during this step that the planners can alter the course of the trail to suit better the location. Use is made of natural fords in the waterway; notes are made of soil type and stability; and a survey is made of available natural materials that can be used to reinforce the trail during construction. Changes in the initially planned course of the trail are noted on the contour map. Factors noted in the reconnaissance survey are: sun exposure, scenery, proximity to suitable camping sites, and availability of fresh water. The trail is marked with removable markers (stakes or wire flags partially depending on the time between layout and expected work), so that changes can be easily made.
In the location survey, the final course is marked. Stray marks left over from the reconnaissance survey are removed. The marking of the trail is very important. Standard colorful wooden stakes (3-5 feet long) are usually placed in the center of the proposed route.
There are 5 principal items of trail geometrics: alignment, dimensions of the graded section, grade, dimensions of the cleared section, and drainage. Alignment is the least important of these items, (remember that an angular turn of more than 50 degrees is unacceptable on all-purpose and administrative trails). Dimension of the graded section is more important than alignment because most trail construction is on sideslopes. Grade is the most important aspect of a trail. Construction on steep grades is expensive, both in initial and maintenance cost (as well as in later use). Grades need to be as gradual as possible so that standard construction and erosion-control methods will suffice in eliminating gullys forming in the tread . Grades exceeding 10 percent are used, only if there is no acceptable alternative. The dimensions of the cleared travel-way will vary due to the type and intended use of the trail. All-purpose and administrative trail sites are cleared of tree trunks, rocks, and debris, to a minimum of 5 feet. The vegetation must be cleared to a minimum of 8 feet. There must be at least 10 feet of overhead clearance. Clearing requirements of special-purposed trails vary with the intended use of the trail. Well-designed drainage reduces erosion. Outsloping and grade dips usually accomplish adequate drainage.
Detailed plans for the trail are needed. A typical cross section of the trail is part of site plans and includes the clearing limits, details of switchback construction, the location and dimensions of drainage areas, and cross sections of the drainage constructions. The specifications usually include: the level of workmanship required, the types of materials needed, and any special fabrication methods for drainage and erosion control systems. The estimates of costs for trails are made on a per mile or per station (beginning and end points of trail segments labeled on a map) basis. People familiar with trail construction usually are needed to make these estimates. Right-of-way issues are handled before estimating the cost of a trail.
Conventional Trail- or Related-Blazes (or Other Paint Marks):
| White | Appalachian Trail |
| Yellow | Open to Hikers, Bikers, and Horseback Riders a multi-purpose trail |
| Blue | Open to Hikers Only |
| Unblazed | Nature Trail; Hikers Only |
| Red or Orange | Federal: US Forest Service or US National Park Boundaries |
The actual construction of the trail requires much labor and time. There are many regulations about which the construction crew must be aware.
Clearing Requirements
The clearing requirements vary due to the service class and forest value categories (within the US Forest Service) assigned during the reconnaissance survey. The proper dimensions for the cleared area are outlined under each service class.
All-purpose trails and administrative trails are cleared to a height of 10 feet, and to a minimum width of 8 feet. Tree stumps and roots are removed if they will interfere with the trail. To help prevent erosion, all healthy trees over 12 inches d.b.h. are left. Limbs in the trail zone are removed from trees and sawed to be even with the trunk and and if necessary, the cut is painted to make it inconspicuous. Area around watering holes and resting areas along trails (for people or horses)are wider than the trail.
Special-purpose trails are cleared to the necessary dimensions to facilitate the intended use of the trail. If the trail is intended for hikers, the area is cleared to a width that will insure an accessible trail, year-round. Stock driveways are cleared to a height of 10 feet and a width of at least 16 feet. The trail is developed in such a way that the livestock will recognize the trail as an open corridor.
General Construction Requirements
Tread construction is done in such a way as to disturb the natural ground surface as little as possible. Adding soil is better than removing soil. When grading a slope, workers start at the upper slope and work downhill. All duff is removed before starting the grading process. When making switchbacks (which should be avoided), the turns are made as level as possible. Drainage requirements are observed when constructing switchbacks. Turnpikes are used in areas that have predominately wet soil. Where possible, wet soils are drained and allowed to dry before they are graded. The grading process can be completed using mechanical graders where feasible.
Drainage is a very important aspect of trail construction. Surface water can be diverted by using outslopes, grade dips, and water bars. Outsloping is probably the best method to use (The Coweeta cut) but it does require extensive maintenance.
Grade dips are sections of trail, within the actual trail, with a slightly higher grade. These sections do not allow water flowing down a trail to past a point. Grades are most successful when used in it conjunction with outslopes. Waterbars consist of logs or sawn wood placed at an angle within the trail. These help limit erosion by slowing and diverting the water flowing across and down the trials.
Surfacing of the trail may be necessary. It is expensive. There are 2 type of surfaces available for use: natural gravel, and puncheon. Rarely are wood chips or blacktop used. Any gravel used should be from the area of the trail. Try to use gravel from stream bottoms and river bars. Puncheon is made of 5 foot native split logs. Like gravel, the maintenance and construction is very time consuming and costly.
There are many types of structures that may need to be constructed including bridges, cableways, fords, retaining walls, and shelters. Bridges should be used only if only if there are no alternatives available. Single span stringer bridges are preferred, but box girder type foot bridges will suffice for hiking trails. Cableways are used to move heavy items across large streams. These are classified as major structures and require rigid guidelines of construction. Fords are usually selected rather than built, but improvements on existing fords may be made using large rocks from the stream. Retaining walls are made of wood or stone and are used to stabilize sideslopes. When using rocks, their width must be at lease half of the height of the wall. Shelters should only be constructed if weather, insects, or other factors demand it. They should be made using standard building plans.
Operation
Proper signing of all trails is important. Blazes should be visible from both directions, and should refer to given points on a map. Blazes are painted on rocks and trees. Good signing eliminates the possibility of a hiker using the wrong trail. Signs stating the proper uses of the trail should be placed at all intersections, especially at the starting points. The manager typically keeps detailed logs of trail conditions, and location of all important features of the trail. Maps show the trail, its uses, and features. The manager attempts to notify the public of trail conditions as they change. Good public relations tend to benefit the area, the public, and staff.
Maintaining Trails
Maintaining trails means assuring that they and their system achieve their objectives over time. Unlike past concepts of maintenance (i.e., preserving and keeping trails and related facilities in their original condition) the Stoneworm system maintenance concept is one of responding to need and but also may include changing user perceptions,interests, costs, and perceived risks. It includes superior construction that reduces the needs for maintenance and its high costs over time, upgrading some trail segments, allowing some to stabilize, and returning others to achieve rapidly a natural appearance and function within the limits of a large set of objectives. The objectives include the large array of conventional trail uses and safe, low-effort passage. Maintenance can be completely stopped only on trails that are completely closed.
Large numbers of hikers create major waste problems, far beyond the absorptive ability of some ecosystems (especially high elevations and areas with thin soils. The Wagbags (WAG stands for waste alleviation and
gelling), manufactured by Phillips Environmental
Products in Montana, have been adopted by the Pentagon
and the Federal Emergency Management Agency for hikers to carry out their own wastes.The Wagbag is actually two separate plastic bags. The
inner one is a funnel-like bag with powder at the
bottom. Water causes the powder to gel, encapsulating
anything in the bag. Their appearance in places like the John Muir
Wilderness or the Grand Canyon is an indication
that park stewards want visitors to take responsibility for themselves.
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Development costs need to be studied carefully as they relate to potential long-term maintenance costs |
Trail maintenance will be done by contract work wherever possible. In some cases the Wildland Crew may adopt suitable conspicuous projects and trail segments or structures. Maintenance will be scheduled for a minimum of every three years based on time and condition. Each trail segment will have data and soon models will be created to specify the timing of segment maintenance based on site location and quality. Some segments will be treated more frequently where there is greatest change and use rate. As noted above, within the U.S. Forest Service the concept of a "recreation opportunity spectrum" (ROS) is used. Trails are placed in six ROS classes. There are notable overlaps in the classes. The classes may suggest levels of use or intensity of use that may influence the frequency or intensity of maintenance work. We however, develop a maintenance schedule, a work- rotation for all trail segments based on a score for the segment. There are many factors that are included within the score, most of which are well correlated with factors that might be included within the "class" designation.
We concentrate herein on hiking, biking, and horse riding trails and work toward a 100-point scale that is annually dynamic for each trail segment (all score decrease each year) progressively making each segment more likely to receive maintenance. Other factors are included that quantify the conditions of the trail segment and indicating the current need for maintenance within the next working period of the current year. The more primitive the trail, generally, the less the level or intensity of maintenance but this changes radically for intensive wilderness use. A large literature exists and we shall develop GIS, GPS, and experience-based models to supplement those findings - integrating cost-effective work with the characteristics of the site (slope, aspect, elevation, soil, surface geology, site moisture, type of use, and use events) each season.
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I - Primitive II - Semiprimitive Non-motorized III - Semiprimitive Motorized IV - Roaded Natural V - Rural VI - Urban (this level includes specialized bike trails and those for the handicapped) |
We shall encourage trail-user organizations, community groups, civic organizations, and businesses to provide periodic maintenance work along the trail corridors as a means of improving trail safety, keeping maintenance costs down, and building goodwill with people living adjacent to the trail.
An "Adopt a Trail" program may be established to encourage groups to improve certain areas along the trail. We shall explore the possibility of using a local " conservation corp" or members of enterprise groups to help with maintenance. This will provide young adults with work opportunities and expose them to the trails while providing the enterprise with a source of seasonal, temporary labor. Some communities have even used low-risk inmates from local correctional facilities to maintain their trails.
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Brush is usually cut back from the trail to the original clear-line. Hand tools, power saws, or herbicides may be used on brush less than three feet tall. Tread is graded by hand, or by horse-draw or mechanical grader to remove effects of erosion, use, or windfalls. The outslope is restored; water bars and dips are cleared; drainage construction is repaired or expanded. Culverts are cleaned. Bridges, steps, and retaining walls are repaired. Major work after 5 years can usually be viewed as new construction, not maintenance, and may require a substantial budget. Puncheon is replaced as needed; work on drainage will tend to reduce the work required later.
The trail condition surveys should result in reports that indicate all work needed with structures such as bridges or retaining walls, and the plan should detail the necessary work. This type work often requires skills beyond those in the normal trail maintenance crew, and requires scheduling the jobs to be done by carpenters, masons, or other skilled workers. Work plans include crew leadership and organization; equipment and supplies; schedule of work; schedule of travel; trail camp location and provision; fire instructions; and records of work.
Numbered trail markers (with GPS determined locations) can improve control, allow superior mapping for maintenance planning, and allow users to report areas where maintenance effort may be appropriate.
Work plans include crew leadership and organization; equipment and supplies; schedule of work; schedule of travel; trail camp location and provision; fire instructions; and records of work.
Records need to be kept of distance worked per person per hour. Detailed records have been shown to be worthless. Proportion of the named trail system worked per year need to be reported and graphed ("proportion worked" is plotted against "years since being worked.") Progress in trail work is variable due to (1) conditions and (2) crew leadership. A data base collected over time will allow effective estimates for trail building and maintenance and effective bidding on trail contracts.
Safety is vigorously promoted. Maintaining trails is dangerous work. Safety training is essential; all crewmembers must be safety conscious. It needs to be established that each member is the safety coach of the entire crew. All crew foremen and key members need first aid training. A 5-person kit needs to be available at the work site at all times. Replace all items used at once.
In the current litigious atmosphere, trail users may be tempted to sue the train managing enterprise or landowner for any accident that happens along the trail - regardless of fault. Although every case is different and is dependent on the specific circumstances surrounding the accident, negligence will play a key role in whether a suit is brought and if so, its outcome. The law requires that the managing agency provide a reasonably safe facility. Therefore, the best solution to the liability problem is prevention: eliminate hazardous situations before an accident occurs. A record of inspection can help establish the "safe condition."
A risk management program including inspections should be established that will aid in discovering problem areas before anyone is injured and attempts to bring a suit. Risk management diminishes the potential for lawsuits, reduces insurance costs and claims, and enhances the safety of the facility.
Although many risk management strategies are quite simple, they are often overlooked. First, develop procedures for periodic inspection and maintenance of the trail and any support facilities. Negligence is predicated on the knowledge of a dangerous condition; governmental agencies are generally not held liable for a hazard unless they knew about it long enough, before an accident occurred, to have made repairs.
A second risk management principle is to provide adequate warning of risks. On multi-use trails, signs can play a key role in warning users of hazards. Place signs such as "Walk Bicycle Through Underpass" or "Dismount Horse Before Crossing Bridge" in appropriate locations along the trail.
Proper handling of a medical emergency is another important element in risk management. If someone is injured, a staff member should watch over the person while another calls for immediate help. It is wise to have staff properly trained in basic first aid and CPR, but if this is not the case, they should not attempt to move an injured person. They may inflict harm. All accidents should be followed by an accurate and thorough report. Failure to do so could have serious repercussions if the injured party sues.
A final risk management principle is documentation. Documenting regular inspections of the trail, its signs, and its support facilities can prove adherence to legal duties, which could make the difference in winning or losing a case. By using these commonsense procedures, the enterprise can significantly reduce its overall chances of liability problems.
Notes
The manager has to know what is on the ground and its condition. Suggestions for inventory and condition surveys scheduled for this fiscal year
Inventory Items (Mm.)
Condition Survey - Should be able to state beside each inventory item if repairs or maintenance is needed and give a summary statement at the completion of each trail inventory.
Maintenance
Terms(some are available in the glossary)
References
Cole, D.N. 1995. Recreational trampling experiments: effects od trampler weight and shoe type. USDA For. Serv., Intermountain Research Station, Res Note INT- RN- 425. 4p.
Switalski, T.A., J.A. Bissonette, T.H. DeLuca, C.H. Luce, and M.A. Madej. 2004. Benefits and impacts of road removal. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2(1):21-28 [temporary increase in sediments; usually full recovery of site]
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This Web site is maintained by R. H.
Giles, Jr.
Last revision March 9, 2005.