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A Total Forest Management Plan and Wildland Management Decision Support System
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Waterholes

About half of all large fauna require water in their life requirements.

A waterhole is a small pond. How small does not have to be debated but it is generally less that one-half acre. Wildlife does not drink much water. There are debates about that so the point that some do drink and seem to need abundant "free water" may make providing it worthwhile. Drinking water has been the past interest for game animals but the total list of fauna needs to be embraced as we develop water areas for fauna.

There may be some reason for classifying waterholes or lakes. This was done for natural ponds and lakes in the glaciated prairie region (Stewart and Kantrud 1971)

Class of Pond or Lake	Vegetation Zone (outside to inside)
	Low Prairie - 1	Wet Meadow - 2	Shallow Marsh - 3	Deep Marsh - 4	Open Water - 5	Intermittent Alkali - 6	Fen - 7
Ephemeral Pond - a	X
Temporary Pond - b	X	X
Seasonal Lake or Pond - c	X	X	X
Semi-Permanent Lake or Pond - d	X	X	X	X
Permanent Lake or Pond - e	X	X	X	X	X
Alkali Lake or Pond - f	X	X	X			X
Fen Pond - g	X	X					X

Vegetation associated with the numbers in the table:

• Low Prairie - 1 - fine-stemmed grasses, forbs, shrubs (with typical plant species lists)
• Wet Meadow - 2 - fine stemmed grasses and sedges with associated forbs
• Shallow Marsh - 3 - moderately coarse grasses and sedges with associated forbs
• Deep Marsh - 4 - coarse marsh emergents or associated submergents
• Open Water - 5 - devoid of emergent vegetation but submergent vegetation often present
• Intermittent Alkali - 6 - devoid of emergent vegetation but the submergent, Ruppia, often present
• Fen - 7 - Grasses, sedges, forbs, and shrubs

1. porous condition of soil and rate of bottom seepage is rapid; surface water brief in early spring
2. water loss rapid; water for only a few weeks after snow melt and heady rains
3. basins maintain water for extended periods in spring and summer but are often dry in late summer and fall
4. basins ordinarily maintain surface water throughout spring and summer and frequently maintain surface water into fall and winter
5. basins that maintain fairly stable surface water levels
6. highly saline shallow water that frequently alternates with exposed white alkali salt flats
7. surface water is sometimes lacking although bottom soils are normally saturated by alkaline ground water seepage; most bottom soils of soft muck or ooze; considered quagmires with floating or quaking surface mats or emergent vegetation

Bear have been observed comming out of hibernation to drink and then return. Pregnant does and does with fawns require large amounts of free water.

Most animals will drink water if it is available but conserve it and may not require large amounts.

The waterholes need to be placed strategically among those that exist and among streams so that costs are not high. Standing water meets the needs of some species that fast-flowing streams do not so proximity may not be an issue.

They may serve a public relations ploy. "The manager has done everything possible for wildlife; that I have not seen any or not been successful in hunting is my fault."

Evaporation from the surface can be great . Keeping them small may be a reasonable consideration. They should be 4 feet deep to maintain permanent water. Sides need to slope for tracking, different species needs, protection in shallow water for some species, and so sharp drop-offs are not a danger.

Placing a floating plastic cover (e.g., thick styrofoam sheets) over the pond may be considered to reduce evaporation.

Slope of the dam fill should not be steeper than 3 to 1 on both sides.

Freeboard should be at least 2 feet above a seeded spillway.

Bare ground around the waterhole should be seeded and mulched.

Fish may be added, not as game fish (requiring management) but as food for other species, including scavengers feeding on dead fish.

An island may create a special habitat and nesting area.

Manage vegetation to prevent woody plants in the dam.

Maintain to prevent erosion and animal damage (e.g., woodchucks or muskrats) in dam

Protect existing spring seeps and other water areas critical to wintering fauna.

Consider gallinaceous guzzlers or modified covered springs as water alternatives.

Manage viewer sites (post warnings about shooting over bait and water) and tracking sites and photopoints.

Keep records of species unique for each waterhole.

Consider GIS maps of water and especially placement of waterholes where they will be in topographic shade during the afternoons of summer (thus reducing evaporation losses in a water budgeting system.

Warnings have been issued about disease transmission and exchanges among animals at intensive feeding and watering areas. Support studies to determine the potentials for disease (e.g., giardiasis) and parasite transmission (e.g., liver flukes)

If a small stream is blocked by the dam to form the waterhole, leave trees standing in the upper reach of the pond.

See notes on pond production

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This Web site is maintained by R. H. Giles, Jr.
Last revision January 17, 2000.