The environment needing management is the mapped area but also a volume, an air column miles above the area (the troposphere) and the geological system below the surface. The stratospheric ozone layer (7 to 30 miles above the Earth) is a mixed global resource. The classes of air pollution afftecting quality are:

1. Nuisance and esthetic insult - odor; low atmospheric visibility; discoloration of buildings and monuments.
2. Property damage - corrosion of metals; accelerated weathering of buildings and monuments; soiling of clothes, buildings and monuments.
3. Damage to plants and animals - leaf spotting and decay; decreased crop yields; decreased rate of photosynthesis; harmful effects on the respiratory and central nervous systems of animals.
4. Damage to human health - oxygen deficiency in the blood; eye irritation; respiratory system irritation and damage; cancer.
5. Human genetic and reproductive damage - largely unknown; possible.
6. Major ecosystem disruption - alteration of local and regional climate, perhaps global.

The subsystems are global and local. Global systems are of concern because massive pollution in one part of the world can influence this area. These include influences of the pollutants of: (1) carbon oxides, (2) sulfur oxides, (3) nitrogen oxides, (4) hydrocarbons, (5) photochemical oxidants, (6) particulates, (see the section on smoke under "A Fire Management System"), (7) other inorganics (e.g., asbestos, sulfuric and nitric acids), (8) other organic compounds (e.g., pesticides, alchohals, acids), (9) radioactive substances, and (10) heat. In the area, the visual quality or visibility is affected by several of these. The visual range is about 10 miles (compared to 70 in the southwestern U.S.).

Locally, the system is sensitive to contributions to the air quality as well as how the air characteristics influence other factors of the environment of the area.

The primary law influencing the air is the Clean Air Act of 1977 with amendments and the law of 1990. Before a significant source of air pollution can be constructed (or an existing source expanded) the source must receive a Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) permit and that involves obtaining comments from agencies to recommend that the permit be issued, modified, or denied.

In addition to effects to human, air pollution can have a major influence on soil and nutrient availability to plants, on litter decomposition, and to lichen and other plants. Plant health influences the susceptibility of plants to insects and disease (thus potential treatments needed). Health influences the quality of plants as forage for animals. Air quality standards have ben established that specify maximum allowable levels for each major air pollutant.

Even after massive amounts of research and great success, major questions about air pollutants remain. Research is needed to help protect human health and the environment from air pollution by providing the scientific and technical information needed to evaluate options for improving air quality in timely and cost-effective ways. Such research characterizes the sources of air pollution, builds a predictive understanding of the phenomena involved, quantifies the human-related effects and impacts, and assess the state of knowledge in policy-relevant terms. Many air quality issues face legislative mandated assessments, regulatory actions, or other important policy decision within coming years. The environmental issues pose potentially large, but often unquantified, risks to human health and well-being. At the same time implementation of planned or potential control measures can have very large socioeconomic impacts.

High levels of surface ozone are occurring in numerous urban areas and are known to have adverse health effects, particularly on more susceptible citizens. The clear cause of this urban pollution is human-generated emissions, notably from automobiles and electric power plants. Despite requirements to reduce emissions, abatement of urban ozone levels has been less than anticipated, and the full scientific explanation as to why is not in hand. Crop damage by elevated rural ozone levels is moderately well characterized, but recent research points to a need to revisit the strategies for reducing such levels. Ozone damage and growth retardation relations for forests are poorly understood, particularly from the standpoint for exposure to multiple stresses.

Similarly, sources of acidic deposition are also clearly related to human activities. Trends in wet acidic deposition are now fairly well defined and show declines over the past few years associated with emission reductions. However, the amount and changes in dry deposition are poorly characterized. Responses of aquatic life, forests soils, and materials to exposure levels are not well quantified, which limits decision regarding appropriate future emission reductions. We plan to follow this research carefully and to integrate the results into the plan and into action on the land.

Our plan is to continue to keep emissions at a level so as to avoid these levels and otherwise contribute to improving regional air quality. Forestry and wildlife work will reduce particulate matter, and revegetation will contribute to the natural levels of organic components of air. Reduced fossil energy use, vehicle changes, and advanced cleaning equipment will all be used as regulations change and funding becomes available. The area is sensitive to acid deposition.

Control costs are conspicuous and high but studies have shown benefits far outweigh the costs, costs do not impeded overall economic growth, price increases are insignificantly small, and plant closings have not occurred as a result of the standards. Indoor air quality (e.g., radon, etc.) is not covered in this system.

Literature Cited

U.S.E.P.A. 1979. Protecting visibility: an EPA report to Congress. EPA-450/5-79-008, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (variously paged)