A unit of Lasting Forests evolving since March 30, 1999
A Total Forest Management Plan and Wildland Management Decision Support System
[ HOME | The Trevey Home | Table of Contents | The Finder | Glossary ]

A Firewood System

This unit of The Trevey was designed to make available information about the region's forest and their potential for meeting the energy needs of individuals and their neighbors in the future. The unit is under development, having been started as a CAPS unit 5/04/1979. It will eventually contain county-level information about the county population, composition, site classes of its commercial forests, and the potential energy that would likely be available if the forests were used exclusively to generate electrical energy. Plans include mapping likely firewood yields within each alpha unit (as a function of the firewood values per species within each likely type). Conversion to ethonol or related organics may be added.

Example of an active commercial firewood site by Luke Wilbur

The managed small forest can provide some firewood for family use, but excessive wood removal can result in a small forest "going downhill." There are about 40 million cords of wood burned in the U.S. each year for firewood but it is only 1 percent of the fuel energy use. Dead wood on the forest floor contributes significantly to the homes and food supply of forest rodents and other small animals of many types. Standing dead trees also contribute to the needs of small mammals as well as many bird species. This dead wood is part of the system needed for flowering plants, soil moisture (inadequate amounts of which can increase insect attack), and tree vigor as well as the animals. There is likely to be strong opposition to using dead and dying trees because of wildlife, watershed, and soil enhancement concerns.The forest owner needs to keep a balance between the rate of wood removed and wood growth. Sale of wood from preserved areas (such as that on private lands in Maryland) is typically prohibited.

Carey and Gill observed that, on the surface, removal of dead or malformed trees seems like a good idea but "from the chickadee's point of view", such action may be tragic. Such trees are the foraging surface for many insect-eating birds, especially woodpeckers and bark-gleaning birds. Removing the low-vigor trees that provide these foraging surfaces and the large dead trees and "wolf" trees that provide nest cavities and dens can result in an energy crisis for wildlife.

Conflicts may arise between using trees for wildlife food and dens and for firewood. In converting forests to energy, planners will want to consider that rapid forest rotations favor deer, rabbits and quail and other forms of game. Such rotations can reduce ground water recharge, and can increase erosion sediments and the dangers of floods. Net energy must always be the calculus used because the energy costs of collecting and transporting wood to a processing center can be very high.

In general, other things like access being equal, the better wood is for firewood, the more easily it can be used as a tool or strategy in wildland management. For example, a road can be built for a certain amount of firewood or select trees can be marked and sold to achieve the desired conditions at a site. In some cases, knowledge of the superior firewoods may suggest needs for increased protection of these trees for other wildlife-related purposes. Previously uneconomical thinnings of stands may become economical.

The unit suggests techniques for managing a firewood system from ownerships based on experience of the US Forest Service. The energy threats and costs of 1973 and those of 2001and 2006 have stimulated interest in personal firewood. "Free wood" collected from the forest floor no longer seems an option. Demand has increased, abuses and conflicts have increased, and impacts of gathering the wood on roads, watershed, and wildlife have become notable.

a suggested folded form with each bundle or sale Superior Rural System Firewood from a forest certified by Smartwood as Sustained Top quality, well-dried wood for your living comfort. Beautiful hardwood forests are thinned after careful analysis for wildlife, beauty, and productivity and some of the wood is returned to the forest floor to enrich the forest ecosystem. Some is right here to enrich your life. Our wood has 8500 Btu per pound. Its hardwood from an Appalachian forest. Burning characteristics are different for each species of tree. We can supply a list and deliver specific wood selected by you for your personal needs. We have a web site that allows you to specify your objectives and thus find the wood that is right for you and your family or friends.

What's the best wood to burn? That already cut, split, and stacked!

The Enterprise Relations

Because of pollutants and efforts to reduce them, wood-burning is not longer appropriate within cities. It is only reasonable at the urban fringe and beyond, then only with an eye on how to reduce CO₂ From The Cristian Science Monitor, Oct 22, 2008 See also Woodheat.org

Use a properly installed, vented, EPA approved stove Use well-seasoned wood Store wood outside, covered and off the ground Use clean newspaper and kindling to start fires Have stove cleaned and inspected annually

Do not burn household trash or cardboard Do not burn plastics, colored inks on magazines or boxes, and wrappers (they emit toxic substances) Do not burn ocean drift wood, pressure-treated (rot resistant woods), plywood, particle board (same reason) Do not burn wet, rotted, diseased or moldy wood (excessive air pollutants).

Concern about energy and CO₂? Wood burning is better than burning coal, not as good as wind or solar.

Wood is sold by the cord,128 cubic feet, no matter what the length, width, and height of the stack. (Use a tape measure.) Our red oak cord weigh about 3,680 pounds. A truck load is variable and usually only about 2/3rd of a cord. Measure it soon after it is stacked and before any is used..
Get the delivery or sales ticket for any firewood or stove wood. It should have Our name, your name and address, the date of delivery, and the quantity delivered, the quantity upon which the price is based, and the total price of the amount delivered. It's best to pay by check, partially as a way to keep a record.
Checkout Rural System Firewood for information about wood, stoves, special sales, care of stoves, chimneys, and storage places, and fireplace pleasures.

This is real exercise! It will be important to make full gains from public relations, notices of availability, service to the elderly and needy, secondary sales of stoves and stove/heating services, energy conservation, and recreatiuonal site and "tops" cleanups. Insurance must be studied. Safety and related instruction may be needed before properly-equipped harvesters are allowed on the site. A mobile wood splitter might be considered to assist wood gatherers. It might be rented or a service provided. Local stores may consider selling packaged firewood of select named species of trees. Solar seasoning can be implemented. Graded wood quality (Btu or an overall goodness index) may make the firewood a fireplace specialty item. A firewood-gatherers' club (e.g., Punkwood or Fatwood) should be formed for social wood-gathering, mutual assistance, interest in saws, trucks, and safety, forestry, wildlife effects, and shared benefits, catered meals, equipment rentals or sharing, field trips, and interest in or work with stove/fireplace/wood efficiencies. Donations to select groups with high appeal should become a regular "program" of the subsystem.

The Value of Trees for Firewood

The average weight of dry wood, all species, is 25 pounds / foot³
The average weight of dry bark is 27 pounds / foot³

The Btu content of wood, dry weight, is 8500 Btu / pound

The Btu of oil 6.3 x 10foot⁶ per barrel

A cord of wood (air-dried red oak) weighing about 3,680 pounds may produce 21.3 million Btu of heat and is equivalent to 166 gallons of #2 fuel oil or 26,800 cubic feet of natural gas.

A planned Trevey report based on observations from the ownership (Relate to other Tables where similar numbers about forest type are displayed together)

Average green-weight specific gravity for forest cover types found in Virginia
SAF Type Number	Specific Garvity	Available heat (million BTU) per cord green wood 80 cu. ft.
21	0.40	12.71
44	0.54	17.13
94	0.47	14.87

Firewood is not just firewood as any experienced wood burner will tell you. The best wood to burn is

that which is already cut to the right length and split.

Common and Scientific Name of Trees and General Value as Firewood (3 being best)

pin cherry Prunus pennsylvanica 1 bigtooth aspen Populus grandidentiata 1 black cherry Salix nigra 1 shortleaf pine Pinus echinata 1 table-mountain pine Pinus pungens 1 Virginia pine Pinus virginiana 1 black locust Robinia pseudoacacia 3 striped maple Acer pensylvanicum 3 sassafras Sassafras albidum 2 boxelder Acer negundo 3 downy serviceberry Amelanchier arborea   eastern redcedar Juniperus virginiana 1 red mulberry Morus rubra  scarlet oak Quercus coccinea 3 pitch pine Pinus rigida 1 river birch Betula nigra 3 butternut Juglans cinerea   black walnut Juglans nigra 3 yellow-popular Liriodendron tulipifera 1 cucumbertree Magnolia acuminata 2 black (sweet) birch Betula lenta 3 sourwood Oxydendrum arboreum   black oak Quercus velutina 3 black cherry Prunus serotina 2 white ash Fraxinus americana 3 green ash Fraxinus pennsylvanica 3 swamp white oak Quercus bicolor 3 chinquapin oak Quercus muehlenbergii 3 chestnut oak Quercus prinus 3 post oak Quercus stellata 3 American sycamore Platanus occidentalis 1 eastern white pine Pinus strobus 1 white oak Quercus alba 3 American elm Ulmus americana 1 red hickory Carya ovalis 3 shagbark hickory Carya ovata 3 mockernut hickory Carya tomentosa 3 black tupelo Nyssa sylvatica 1 northern red oak Quercus rubra 3 silver maple Acer saccharinum 3 bitternut hickory Carya cordiformis 3 shelbark hickory Carya laciniosa 3 common persimmon Diospyros virginiana   slippery elm Ulmus rubra 1 red maple Acer rubrum 3 pignut hickory Carya glabra 3 yellow buckeye Aesculus octandra   hackberry Celtis occidentalis 3 northern white-cedar Thuja occidentalis   American basswood Tilia americana 1 white basswood Tilia heterophylla   American hombeam Carpinus croliniana   flowering dogwood Cornus florida 3 eastern hophombeam Ostrya virginiana   American beech Fagus grandifolia 3 sugar maple Acer saccharum 3 eastern hemlock Tsuga canadensis 1 Carolina hemlock Tsuga caroliniana

Humor aside, for the best firewood for burning, use those weighted as 3 in the adjacent table. "Practical" is the key word in firewood: is it available, close to the road, relatively easily brought in, easily worked, and provides the desired aroma. The list rates tree species on their overall value as firewood. The rating is based on ease of splitting, drying, and igniting the wood; the energy per volume of wood; tendency to form a bed of coals; tendency to produce pleasant odors; ease of burning when wet; tendency to produce sparks and smoke; tendency to produce unpleasant odors; and resin content (and consequently creosote release). Numerical values are simply: excellent (3), good (2), or fair (1). The blank value indicates value unknown.

Rarely noted, collecting, sawing, and splitting firewood can be a healthy outdoor activity and exercise.

Costs

Benefits and costs need to be carefully analyzed. The benefits (seen as demand) are likely to increase as energy costs increase and availability decreases. The costs of administering a dispersed firewood program can be high. The costs analyses need to include:

1. job classes
2. pay differences
3. hours worked
4. vehicle type used
5. vehicle rental-equivalent cost
6. vehicle miles
7. current cost of gasoline
8. office supplies
9. field supplies
10. tract layouts
11. marking and signing costs
12. contractual costs
13. insurance and safety training
14. road maintenance (assuming no new roads are built)
15. inspection and enforcement.

Wood sales may be variable but tend to be from the following:

1. free dead and down up to 5 cords or equivalent ccf (1 ccf = 100 ft³) per permit
2. Sale wood, marked, within a boundary
3. Pick-up load wood (cut your own)
4. Small freewood units (greenwood, usually marked, within a boundary of less than an acre)
5. Free greenwood (individually marked trees)
6. Trees in areas set aside for groups (e.g., senior citizens)

A face cord (also known as a short cord, rick cord, or run cord measures 4 x 8 with each piece 1 to 2 feet long (thus when 16 inches, about one-third of a standard cord). A "unit" of fire wood is 2ft x 2ft x 16 inches. A standard truchload holds no more than one-third to one-half of a standard cord.

Firewood systems have been very complex because of the above list of factors and variability within each. Profit analyses cannot be generally computed. In 1981 it cost the USFS $6.00 to issue a permit for firewood gathering.

Site Class is a phrase describing how productive an area is likely to be for tree growth. The higher the site class, the better the area. Unlike cropland, the site class or wood productivity is very difficult or expensive to improve. The owner(s) are likely to find that a set of well-marked and well-signed firewood stands with managed access will assure long-term financial gains, and provide increasing attachment to the importance of the land managed as Lasting Forests.

The figures eventually produced, energy in trees likely to grow on the acres in each site class of forested land in a county should be incorporated into county energy plans. No suggestion is being made that all forest resources should be converted into or used only in energy production. If energy supplies become more difficult to obtain, the margin of security (i.e., how much over 100% of your electric needs) would be worth studying. The following forest resources can now be used in energy production, as firewood and as supplements to solid waste energy recovery systems.

The Energy Units

The elements for modeling firewoods and fuel use are (notes from Saucier 1980, Shelton and Shapiro (1978), Carey and Gill (1980) and other publications):

• Burning one cord of good hardwood = using a ton of coal
• Burning one cord of good hardwood = using 200 gallons of fuel oil.
• Burning one cord of good hardwood = using 4,000Kwh electricity.
• The actual weight of wood is variable. Dry hickory weighs 63 pounds per cubic foot; oak and maple weigh 43; sycamore weighs 35; and white pine weighs 25.
• Burning wet wood looses 15% of the potential heat in the same wood if dry (25% moisture after 6 months of seasoning).
• Pine knots have 40% more heat than average woods.
• The US has 50% more proven reserves of energy in standing forests than it has in oil.
• The forests have an estimated annual renewable production of 7 to 8 quads, about 10% of the current annual consumption.
• Only 3 quads of that is available for energy since 4 quads are harvested for housing and other essentials.
• Another quad is already being used as energy by the forest products industry. Mill residues are no longer avaialable.
• Of the remaining 4 quads
  1. 1.5 is in logging residue
  2. 0.5 is in dead and dying trees
  3. 1.0 is in unmerchatable stock or inaccessible.
• Thus there are only 2 quad equivalents available (within our present system) for energy use.
• Wong(1978) estimated fuel wood burning contributed 0.2 x 10 grams per year gross inputs of CO₂ into the atmosphere, 0.006 x 10¹⁵ grams per year net input.
• In Georgia, thinnings can remove 20-50 tons per acre of fuelwood chips and leave a healthy, productive stand.
• Thinning and "cleanup" activities may be esthetically pleasing to some people but can be detrimental to many wildlife species, especially the songbirds feeding on insects.
• Developing a fuelwood market and delivery system can greatly enhance forest management on previously high-graded and abused land.
• Wood will become an element of co-generation of electricity with waste heat as a fuel.
• Major energy needs are for crop drying, brick manufacture, shools, penal institutions, textile plants, etc.

To obtain a diversity of wildlife within a firewood system, take firewood from the species that are most abundant. Retain the greatest variety of trees. Maintain different age stand, rotating harvests among your stands. Later we propose to develop a planned harvest sequence to stabilize wood yield, timber harvest, and potential wildlife (squirrel) harvest levels. (see Bromley, Vodak and Giles 1982.) Prevent major snags from being taken. Try to retain 3 large snags per acre (no more than 40 yards apart on average)

All forests are unique. An "average" only gives a rough approximation to the possible production of firewood. The growth rate is on average, about ___ on lands recognized as forests. This generally means an imbalance will occur if more than ___ cord of wood are removed per acre. [A cord is 128 cubic feet (3.2 cubic meters) or 4 x 4 x 8 feet of stacked wood (including air space). A green cord of wood will weigh about 5500 pounds and about half will be water. Drying is important for quality firewood. An acre is 43,560 square feet or a square area of about 71 x 71 yards.]

Comparative heating value of select hardwoods (heat per cord in millions of Btu's) from T.F. Milton's. 1980. Heating the Hole with Wood, Univ. Minn Ext Bull 436, 31 pp

Hickory 15.2 Ironwood (Hop hornbeam) 15.0 Apple 14.6 White Oak 14.1 Beech 13.2 Sugar Maple 13.2 Yellow Birch 13.0 WhiteAsh 13.0 PaperBirch 11.2 Cherry 11.0 American Elm 10.7 BlackAsh 10.5 Red Maple 10.3 Boxelder 9.8 JackPine 9.4 Hemlock 8.7 Black Spruce 8.7 Aspen 8.1 White Pine 7.9 Balsam Fir 7.9 Basswood 7.4 White Cedar 6.7

Stoves

Firewood management within a forest and wildlife management strategy can be changed by increasing or decreasing firewood demand. This can be done by providing information, influencing availability of stoves and stove care, and influencing the ease of acquiring wood. Relevant information is:

1. About 7% of the US households have a working wood stove; a potential of 18-23 million homes. (EPA said 14 million (1986); US Dept Energy said 6 million, 1988.)
2. Households burn about 2 cords average per year; if sole source of heat, 5 cords.
3. Residential wood burning is equivalent to 140,000 barrels of oil per day.
4. Wood stoves burn less wood and give more heat than fireplaces.
5. In Virginia (1986) 1,901,200 cords of fuel wood were used by 41 % of Virginia households (the equivalent of 346 million gallons of #2 fuel oil).
6. Open fire places have very low heating energy efficient (90% goes up the chimney)
7. There are about 500 stove companies producing 2000 models.
8. There are many new stoves. Consider Paul M. Sturges, Leggett Road, Stone Ridge, NY 12484 with a special heat exchanger.
9. There are few industrial standards on stoves.
10. Stoves should be judged based on efficiency (50-60%)
    • heat output capacity,
    • steadiness,
    • duration of output,
    • electrical - supplements needed,
    • tendency to form creosote,
    • safety deposits,
    • control of drafts,
    • ease of cleaning,
    • durability,
    • ease of loading wood, and
    • costs.

Sales (or trades) of firewood are not allowed from conserved land (such as on private land in Maryland), but when seen as part of a larger forest with a reserved section, careful limited cutting can create wonderful conditions for very diverse wildlife. Thinning of timber by firewood sales can diversify stands, produce lateral diversity, increase soft mast and browse, and improve timber quality. It can provide a valuable, perhaps necessary, energy source to society. On the other hand it can interrupt mineral cycles in mineral-short areas, and increase administrative costs, create gating, road, and access problems. It can disrupt nesting and other animal activity, and remove valuable nesting and insect-producing areas (e.g., that for wood borers etc.). On the other hand, the area growing after a tree canopy has been removed can produce conditions needed by many insects and other animals. Abundant use of firewood from the area may create air pollution. In some areas (and by some people) more energy and costs are spent in getting wood than the energy the wood yields.

Energy from The Woodland Patches

It may be useful to imaging family wood or small amounts for family and friends. These can be produces from small woodland patches, marked or specially noted for this purpose and excluded from other ownership decisions. The idea is to have 4 patches with operations in a new one during every 9-10 years. We know the timing is variable. This amounts to a 40-50-year rotation. We need to estimate the annual yield (in millions of Btu). We assume the size of each forest patch is A and it is to be harvested within a period of 9 years. We expect an average of 24 x 10⁶ Btu per cord. If we get C cords per acre then the annual yield in millions of Btus Y is:

Y = A (C / 9) 24

Y = 2.66 AC

Where wood yields (C) in the long rotation area are 35 cords and 20 in the short rotation area, then Y is between 93.1 x 10⁶ and 53.2 x 10⁶ Btus per year respectively from each patch. Since 4 areas are cut each year (or on average of each year within the 10-year period) with the exception of the startup period when only three areas are cut, then the stable annual energy yields from the property are respectively, 372.4 and 212.8 million Btus.

The assistance of John G. Fairservice, Jr. (1979) and John S. Zack (1981) in developing this unit was appreciated.

Clearly there are major benefits as well losses to the forest and to the wildlife and forest resources and to society from firewood management. It needs to be done in a sophisticated way to balance these conflicting and competing roles.

Instant Download or Rush Mail Order Update Bulletin No. 436 - do-it-yourself instructions and materials list for making a two-door Virginian wood dryer/mini-greenhouse, firewood selector guide listing low/medium/high heat content wood types, wood heat evaluation worksheets to determine if wood heating is cost effective for your home, and safe wood burning tips. See www.dulley.com
To order by mail, write to James Dulley, WWW, 6906 Royalgreen Dr., Cincinnati, OH 45244. $3.00

Firewood References

The following references were used in developing a unit on forewood and forestry for the Trevey, with work begin in 1982. The Worldwatch Institute may have new reference materials. The National Agricultural Library (Beltsville, MD) will develop bibliographies through Agricola.

Bailey, M.R. and P.R. Wheeling. 1982. Wood and energy in Vermont. USDA Econ. Res. Serv. ERS Staff Report No. AGES 820126, 50pp.

Boyce, S.G. (ED.) 1979. Biological and sociological basis for a rational use of forest resources for energy and organics, an international workshop. USDA For. Serv., Ashville, NC 193pp.

Boyce, S.G. and H.A. Knight. 1980. Prospective ingrowth of southern hardwoods beyond 1980. USDA For Serv. Res Paper SE-203, Ashville, NC 33pp.

Bromley, P.T. , M.C. Vodak, and R.H. Giles, Jr. 1982. Managing southern Appalachian hardwoods for firewood and wildlife habitat, SAF working group on wildlife and fish ecology, Sept 21,, Cincinnati, OH (ms)

Burgess, R.L. 1976. Forest fuels and energy demand. Proc. of the 55th annual Appalachian Section. SAF. pp.32-36.

Carey, A.B. and J.D. Gill. 1980. Firewood and wildlife. USDA For Serv. Res Note, NE-299, Broomall, PA. 5p.

Corder, S.E. 1973. Wood and bark as fuel. OSU Research Bulletin 14, Corvallis, Oregon 28p.

Cost, Noel D. 1976. Forest statistics for the coastal plain of Virginia, 1976. U.S.D.A., For. Serv. Resour. Bull. SE-34. Southeast. For. Exp. Stn., Asheville, N.C. pp.1-33.

Domenici, P. 1976. Bioconversion-opportunities unlimited. A Conference on Capturing the Sun Through BioconversIon. Washington, D.C. pp.81-86.

Dutrow, G.F. 1980. Economic considerations in artificial and natural regeneration of hardwoods. p 48-51 in Proc. hardwood regeneration symposium, SE Lumber MFG. Assoc., Atlanta, GA

Eckholm, E.P. 1975. The other energy crisis: firewood. Worldwatch Paper 1, Unipub, New York 22pp.

Freeman, D.S. 1971. Toward a policy of energy conservation. Bulletin of Atomic Scientist. 27(8):8-12.

Green, F.L. 1976. Energy potential from agricultural residues. A Paper Presented During a Conference on Capturing the Sun Through Bioconversion. Washington, D.C. p. 176.

Harris, L.D. 1980. Forest and wildlife dynamics in the Southeast. Trans. N.A. Wildlife and Nat. Res. Conf. 45: 307-322.

Harris, L.D., D.H. Hirth, and W>R> Marion. 1979. The development of silvicultural systems for wildlife, p. 65-81, 28th Ann. Forestry Symposium, U. Florida, Gainesville

Harris, L.D. and J.D. McElveen. 1981. Effects of forest edges on Florida breeding birds. IMPAC report 6(4) Gainesville, FL 24pp.

Herrick, O.W. 1977. Impact of alternative timber management policies on availability of forest land in the Northeast. USDA For. Serv. Res Paper NE-390, Broomall, PA., 14pp.

Hirst, E. 1973. Energy vs. environment: the coming struggle. The Living Wilderness. pp.43-47.

Koch, P. 1972. Utilization of the southern pines. U.S.D.A. Agricultural Handbook No. 420 (2):1368-1410.

Lamson, N.I. 1976. Appalachian hardwood stump sprouts are potential sawlog crop trees. USDA For. Serv. Res Note, NE-229, Upper Darby, 4p.

Landt, E.F. 1974. Tips for use of firewood. Wisc. Cons. Bull. Jan- Feb :20-21.

Large, D.B. 1973. Hidden wastes, potentials for energy conservation. The Conservation Foundation. Washington, D.C. pp.1-137

McMillan, G. 1980? Wood fuel's popularity: it poses problems to ecolofy, forests. Boston Globe (reprint in EPA Env. News, Boston)

Megahan, W.F. 1976. Tables of geometry for low-standard roads for watershed management considerations, slope staking, and end areas. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech Rpt. INT-32, Ogden, UT 104pp.

Minchler, L.S. 1980. Woodland ecology (2nd ed.) Syracuse Univ. Press, Syracuse, NY 241pp.

Mosby, H. 1977. The management of forest game. A class handout given in game management at V.P. I. and S. U.

Peterson, H.D. 1976. Wisconsin forest price review. University of Wisconsin Extension Division. pp.1-4.

Phillips, D.R. 1081. Predicted total tree biomass of understory hardwoods. USDA For. Serv. SE-223, Ashville, NC 22pp.

Reed, T.B. 1976. When the oil runs out. A Paper Given in the Conference on Capturing the Sun Through Bioconversion. Washington, D.C. pp.367-388.

Roach, B.A. 1977. A stocking guide for Allegheny hardwoods and its use in controlling intermediate cuttings. USDA For. Serv. Res Paper NE-373, Upper Darby, PA 30pp.

Rose, D.W. 1975. Fuel forest vs. strip-mining:fuel production alternatives. J. For. 73(8):489-493.

Saucier, J.R. 1980. Diversified use of wood for fuel - its potential and limitations, p.154-157 in Timber demand, the future is now. For. Prod. Res. Soc., Madison, Wisc.

Sheffield, R.M. 1976. Forest statistics for the northern piedmont of Virginia, 1976. U.S.D.A., For. Serv. Resour. Bull. SE-39. Southeast. For. Exp. Stn., Asheville, N.C. 33.pp.

Smith, H.C. 1977. Height of tallest saplings in 10-year-old Appalachian hardwood clearcuts. USDA For. Serv. Res Paper NE 381, Upper Darby, PA 6p.

Smith, H.C., G.R. Trimble, Jr., and P.S. DeBald. 1979. Raise cutting diameters for increased returns. USDA For. Serv. Res Paper NE-445, Broomall, PA 7pp.

Smith, W.E. 1976. The potential of our forests as a source of solar energy. A Paper Given During the Conference on Capturing the Sun Through Bioconversion. Washington, D.C. pp.157-160.

Society of American Foresters with cooperation of The Wildlife Society. 1981. Choices in silviculture for American forests. SAF, Washington, DC 80pp.

Steinbeck, K. 1976. Comments on "land and fresh water energy farming't. A Paper Given at the Conference on

Szego, G.C. and C.C. Kemp. 1973. Energy forest and fuel plantations. Chem. Tech. 3(5):275-284.

Szego, G.C. 1976. Design, operati6n and economirs of the energy plantation. A Paper Given at the Conference

Trimble, G.R., Jr. J.H. Patric, J.D. Gill, G.H. Moeller, and J.N. Kochenderfer. 1974. Some options for managing forest land in the Central Appalachians. USDA For. Serv. Gen Tech Rpt NE-12, Upper Darby, PA 42pp.

Trimble, G.R> Jr., J.J. Mendel, and R.A. Kennell. 1974. A procedure for selection marking in hardwoods. USDA For Serv. Res Paper NE-292, Upper Darby, PA 13pp.

Trippensee, R.E. 1948. Wildlife management, upland game and general principles. McGraw Hill Co. New York. pp.1-479.

Triska, F.J. and K. Cromack, Jr. 1079. The role of wood debris in forests and streams, p.171-190 in R.H. Waring (Ed.) Forests: fresh perspectives from ecosystem analysis. Proc. 40th Am. Biol. Colloq. Oregon State Univ. Press, Corvallis, OR 199pp.

U.S.D.A. 1970. The outlook for timber in tie United States. U.S.D.A., For. Serv., For. Res. Rpt. No. 20. pp.3G7.

Wengert, E.M. 1977. Information cited was from personal conversations with Dr. Wengert pertaining to the energy forest. (see extension notes on solar drying)

White, M.S. 1977. Solar drying of hogged wood and bark fuels. Proceeding, Practical Application of Solar Energy to Wood Processing. January 6-7. V.P.l. and S.U.

Wong, C.S. 1978. Atmospheric input of carbon dioxide from burning wood. Science 200:197-200.

Young, H.E. 1975. The enormous potential of the forest: a positive rebuttal to Grantham and Elis. J. For. 75(2):99-102.

Go to top of page.

This Web site is maintained by R. H. Giles, Jr.
Last revision February 8, 2003.