Taxonomy

Species ID	020210
Name	Marine Toad
Other Common Names	Cane Toad
Category	02 Amphibians
Phylum
Subphylum
Class	Amphibia
Subclass
Suborder
Family	Bufonidae
Genus	Bufo
Species	marinus
Subspecies
References	4
Scientific Synonyms	Rana marina Linnaeus, 1758

Comments

4* For many years the name B. horribilis was applied to Mexican populations s, and some of the early literature will be found under that name. Although the Mexican populations have been treated as subspecifically distinct-and the name B. m. horribilis applied to them-Easteal (1986) concluded that no subspecies should be recognized.

Distribution

DISTRICT	References
Toledo, Belize	1
Corozal, Belize	2
Orange Walk, Belize	2
Belize, Belize	2
Cayo, Belize	2
Stann Creek, Belize	2

Administrative Unit	Occurrence	Abundance	Temporal	References
Private land, see comments	Photographed	Unknown, insufficient data	December	5
Private land, see comments			Dry season (Jan-May)	1
Government land				2
Shipstern Nature Reserve				2
Rio Bravo Conservation Area				2
Altun Ha Archaeological Reserve				2
Monkey Bay Wildlife Sanctuary (Private)				2
Xunantunich Archaeological Reserve				2
Slate Creek Preserve				2
Mountain Pine Ridge Forest Reserve				2
Chiquibul Forest Reserve				2
Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary				2
Chiquibul National Park				2
Bladen Nature Reserve				2
Deep River Forest Reserve				2
Turneffe Reef			Wet season (June-December)	3

ELEVATION Association	References
1-200 m	5

QUAD Distribution	References
17 00' to 17 15'; 89 00' to 89 15'	5
17 45' to 18 00'; 88 15' to 88 30'	2
18 15' to 18 30'; 88 15' to 88 30'	2
17 15' to 17 30'; 88 30' to 88 45'	2
17 00' to 17 15'; 89 00' to 89 15'	2
17 00' to 17 15'; 88 45' to 89 00'	2
17 00' to 17 15'; 88 30' to 88 45'	2
16 45' to 17 00'; 89 00' to 89 15'	2
16 45' to 17 00'; 88 45' to 89 00'	2
18 15' to 18 30'; 88 00' to 88 15'	2
16 45' to 17 00'; 88 15' to 88 30'	2
16 30' to 16 45'; 89 00' to 89 15'	2
16 30' to 16 45'; 88 45' to 89 00'	2
16 30' to 16 45'; 88 30' to 88 45'	2
16 15' to 16 30'; 88 45' to 89 00'	2
16 15' to 16 30'; 88 30' to 88 45'	2
18 00' to 18 15'; 88 30' to 88 45'	1
15 50' to 16 00'; 88 50' to 89 15'	2
17 15' to 17 30'; 87 45' to 88 00'	3
17 45' to 18 00'; 89 00' to 89 15'	2

Holdridge Life Zone Distribution	References
Subtropical moist	5

Comments on Distribution

5* Miller, C.M. (1987). Natural history voucher photograph collection,
   San Iganacio.

Graphics

Pictures

Habitat Associations

HABITAT	References
TERRESTRIAL	3

Forest Type Associations	Seral Stage	Canopy Closure	References
Coastal Formations	stage unknown	Canopy unknown	3

Land Use/Land Cover Associations	References
Cayes and islands	3
Tourism, coastal and cayes	3

Food Habits

Trophic

CARNIVORE

References on Trophic Level

4

Comments on General Food Habits

4* Marine toads are nocturnal, and they consume a wide variety of invertebrate and vertebrate prey. Virtually any animal that can be taken into the mouth can become a prey item, including small conspecifics. In Nicaragua, Noble (1918:333) found mostly cockroaches in the stomachs of individuals collected in villages. In southern Florida the diet of B. marinus includes canned pet food, overripe avocados, and broccoli (Alexander, 1964). Zug et al. (1975) reported that in Papua-New Guinea this species consumes plant material when animal prey is unavailable.

References/Lifestage	Reference Numbers
General	4

Environmental Associations

References/Lifestage	Reference Numbers

Life History

Life History Narrative

This is primarily a toad of open habitats such as savannas and secondary forests; it is uncommon in or completely absent from closed-canopy forests. Over much of its range B. marinus has become a human commensal, and it is now very abundant in and around human habitations. Throughout the Yucatan Peninsula these toads congregate beneath streetlights and feed on the insects attracted to the lights. They are often seen on roads at night, especially following rains, and can easily be mistaken for small boulders. Marine toads are nocturnal, and they consume a wide variety of invertebrate and vertebrate prey. Virtually any animal that can be taken into the mouth can become a prey item, including small conspecifics. In Nicaragua, Noble (1918:333) found mostly cockroaches in the stomachs of individuals collected in villages. In southern Florida the diet of B. marinus includes canned pet food, overripe avocados, and broccoli (Alexander, 1964). Zug et al. (1975) reported that in Papua-New Guinea this species consumes plant material when animal prey is unavailable. Zug and Zug (1979) studied the natural history of B. marinus in Panama and summarized information on other native populations. The females in Panama become reproductively mature at a snout-vent length of about 90 to 100 mm; the males are mature at about 85 to 95 mm. Most Middle American populations of B. marinus exhibit a bimodal reproductive pattern, with peaks in the dry season and the wet season. Barbour and Cole (1906:154) found the species breeding in February at Chich‚n Itz , and Stuart (1935:36) found tadpoles and juveniles in central El Pet‚n in early May. Schmidt (1941:481) reported that marine toads breed in February in Belize, and Duellman (1963:221) found breeding toads in March and July at Chinaj , Alta Verapaz. I have heard calling males throughout the rainy season, including a chorus on Isla Cozumel in October. A protracted, perhaps bimodal or continuous, pattern of breeding is thus indicated. The males call from the edges of temporary or permanent bodies of water. Male-male competition for females can be intense and may involve attempts by competing males to supplant amplectant males (Lee, 1986:208). Amplexus is axillary. The females produce many thousands of eggs, which they deposit in the water as long strings. The eggs hatch in one and a half to four days, and the larvae complete metamorphosis in one to two months (Zug and Zug, 1979:11). The skin of this species is particularly well supplied with granular poison glands. The parotoid glands produce a toxic secretion with digitalis-like pharmacological properties. Dogs have been known to die from biting these toads, and Dodds (1923:6) reported that the natives of eastern Sinaloa used the skin secretions to poison their arrow tips. W. T. Allen and Neill (19561 recorded instances in which handling B. marinus, or even being near them, brought on headaches, nausea, and even vomiting in humans; and Dioscoro (1952:282) reported that a man died after eating three toads that he mistook for edible frogs.

Life History References

4

Management Practices

References/Result	Reference Numbers

References

1  Matola, S., 1990. The Dolores Expedition, January 27 - February 3, 1990.
   Unpublished report.

2  Meerman, J., 1994. Summary of Herpetofauna Distributions in Belize.
   Report to National Protected Areas Management Project.

3  Platt, S. G. 1994. Checklist of Fauna Recorded During Crocodile Surveys
   of Turneffe Atoll.  Unpub. checklist.

4  Lee, Julian C. 1996. The Amphibians and Reptiles of the Yucatan
   Peninsula. Comstock Publishing Associates. Ithaca, New York.

5  Miller, C.M. 1987. Natural history voucher photograph collection.